Nama : Riana Suherman

Nim : 30814139

Matkul : Metodologi Penelitian (Review Analisis)

Jurnal 1

Judul : Pengembangan Multimedia Dalam Pembelajaran Kosakata Bahasa Inggris di SD

Penulis : I Nyoman Mardika

Tahun : 2016

Masalah Penelitian	Landasan Literatur
Teknik pengajaran bahasa inggris yang masih konvensional seperti metode ceramah secara klasikal dan masih berpusat pada buku sebagai media pendukung pengajaran sehingga kurang memenuhi prinsip-prinsip. Proses belajar mengajar sebaiknya dilandasi dengan prinsip-prinsip: berpusat pada siswa, mengembangkan kreativitas siswa, menciptakan kondisi menyenangkan dan menantang, mengembangkan beragam kemampuan yang bermuatan nilai, menyediakan pengalaman belajar yang beragam, dan belajar melalui berbuat.	multimedia didefinisikan sebagai penyampaian informasi secara interaktif dan terintegrasi yang mencakup teks, gambar, suara, video atau animasi (Hackbarth 1996; Philips, 1997).


	multimedia interaktif memiliki potensi untuk menciptakan suatu lingkungan multisensori yang mendukung cara belajar tertentu serta dapat mengakomodasi cara belajar yang berbeda-beda. (Philips (1997:12)



	Luther, 1994 (Ariesto Hadi Sutopo, 2003: 32-48) mengungkapkan enam tahap pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran yaitu concept, design, material collecting, assembly, testing and distribution.


	Pengembangan media meliputi enam langkah, yaitu: menganalisis kebutuhan dan karakteristik siswa, merumuskan tujuan instruksional, merumuskan materi secara terperinci, mengembangkan alat pengukur keberhasilan, menulis naskah media, dan mengadakan test dan revisi. (Arief S. Sadiman, et al. 2016:100)




	Pembelajaran kosakata dengan multimedia berpusat pada kondisi noticing, retrieval, dan generative use. (1) Noticing yaitu bentuk pembelajaran dengan menggunakan tulisan yang diberi warna, disorot, dan diberi cahaya. (2) Retrieval yaitu pembelajaran yang dilakukan dengan penundaan atau pemunculan petunjuk secara berangsur-angsur. (3) Generative Use yaitu pembelajaran yang dilakukan dengan melengkapi koskata dalam berbagai konteks dan bentuk seperti gambar, tulisan, dan suara. (Nation 2001:109)







	Constantinescu (2007: 4) menyebutkan empat prinsip mengajar dalam pembelajaran bahasa berbantuan komputer untuk pengembangan kosakata yaitu (1) guru harus memperhatikan ketersediaan alat-alat mengajar. (2) guru harus memberi penjelasan dalam bentuk teks dengan menggunakan multimedia. (3) guru harus mengetahui jenis-jenis materi online dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris karena tidak semua materi tersebut dapat digunakan di dalam kelas. (4) guru harus menggunakan metode yang sesuai dan memanfaatkan multimedia dengan baik.

Metode Penelitian

Dalam penelitian ini, model yang menjadi acuan adalah model penelitian

pengembangan Borg & Gall (2003: 775), model pengembangan desain pembelajaran

Dick, Carey & Carey (2005: 1), dan pengembangan produk model Luther, 1994

(Ariesto Hadi Sutopo, 2003: 32). Ketiga model pengembangan tersebut diadaptasi sehingga menghasilkan sebuah model pengembangan yang lebih sederhana, yang

dijadikan sebagai landasan dalam penelitian. Adapun konsepnya menjadi seperti ini:

Penelitian ini melalui enam tahap berikut:

1. Tahap analisis kebutuhan. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk mengumpulkan informasi yang relevan dengan perlunya pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran kosakata bahasa Inggris kelas V SD.

2. Tahap desain pembelajaran. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan desain pembelajaran hingga menghasilkan silabus sebagai dasar untuk mengembangkan multimedia pembelajaran.

3. Tahap produksi/pengembangan multimedia. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan produk awal, dan selanjutnya dites atau dijalankan dalam komputer untuk memastikan apakah hasilnya sesuai dengan yang diinginkan atau tidak.

4. Tahap validasi ahli. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui kelayakan produk yang dikembangkan.

5. Melakukan revisi. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas produk berdasarkan saran revisi ahli materi dan ahli media.

6. Melakukan uji coba produk. Tahap ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui daya tarik multimedia yang dikembangkan bagi siswa dan untuk memperoleh skor hasil pre-test dan post-test.

Instrumen pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah angket, pedoman observasi, dan soal pre-test dan post-test. Angket digunakan untuk memperoleh data yang berkaitan dengan kualitas kelayakan materi dan kualitas kelayakan media. Pedoman observasi digunakan sebagai panduan dalam melakukan observasi terhadap sikap siswa selama proses uji coba untuk mengetahui daya tarik produk bagi siswa. Soal pre-test dan post-test digunakan untuk mengetahui ketuntasan belajar siswa setelah menggunakan produk multimedia yang dikembangkan.

NO	KESIMPULAN
1	pengembangan multimedia dalam pembelajaran kosakata bahasa Inggris kelas V SD telah dilakukan melalui enam tahap, yaitu: 1. melakukan analisis kebutuhan, 2. mengembangkan desain pembelajaran, 3. mengembangkan produk multimedia pembelajaran, 4. melakukan validasi ahli, 5. melakukan revisi, dan 6. melakukan uji coba.
2	ditinjau dari aspek isi dan aspek pembelajaran, kualitas multimedia yang dikembangkan dinilai “baik” oleh ahli materi. Kriteria “baik” ini diketahui melalui tabel konversi nilai skala 5. Rata -rata skor penilaian ahli materi pada aspek isi adalah 3,75 dan rata-rata skor penilaian ahli materi pada aspek pembelajaran adalah 3,71.
3	ditinjau dari aspek tampilan dan aspek pemrograman, kualitas multimedia pembelajaran yang dikembangkan dinilai “baik” oleh ahli media. Ahli media memberi penilaian pada aspek tampilan dengan rata-rata skor sebesar 3,87 dan aspek pemrograman dengan rata-rata skor sebesar 3,75.
4	berdasarkan hasil observasi, disimpulkan bahwa daya tarik produk “sangat menarik”, karena lebih dari setengah jumlah siswa menyatakan bahwa produk “sangat menarik”. Kriteria daya tarik ini diketahui melalui tabel pedoman konversi data kuantitatif ke data kualitatif untuk daya tarik media yang dikembangkan
5	penggunaan multimedia mempunyai dampak positif terhadap ketuntasan belajar siswa. Dari dua puluh siswa yang telah mengikuti uji coba kelompok besar terdapat satu siswa yang tidak tuntas belajar kosakata bahasa Inggris dan 19 siswa (95%) yang tuntas belajar dengan rata-rata skor 16,25 atau memperoleh nilai 81,25 dari nilai maksimal 100. Ketuntasan belajar ini tergolong “sangat baik”.

Jurnal 2

Judul : Pengembangan Multimedia Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Untuk Pembelajaran Teks Recount di MTsN II Yogyakarta

Penulis : Muhammad Ahmad Jumasa, Herman Dwi Surjono

Tahun : 2016

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN TEORI
Mempelajari bahasa Inggris sangatlah penting karena bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa global yang digunakan secara internasional. Oleh karena itu dalam mempelajari bahasa Inggris, pembelajaran harus secara efektif dilakukan. Adapun tujuan dalam penelitian ini antara lain: (1) menghasilkan produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount, (2) mengetahui kelayakan produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount, dan (3) mengetahui keefektifan produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount untuk siswa kelas VIII MTsN II Yogyakarta.	Alat bantu visual seperti gambar memiliki manfaat yaitu mampu menyam-paikan makna dan mampu menarik per-hatian siswa (Harmer, 2007, pp. 178-179). Alat bantu audio mampu meningkatkan kemampuan mendengar (Heinick, et.al, 1996, p. 178). Alat bantu audio visual dapat meningkatkan perhatian dan motivasi siswa karena melalui alat bantu ini kedua mata dan telinga siswa menjadi aktif (Parel dan Jain, 2008, p. 64).
	Menurut Harmer (2007, p. 319), musik bermanfaat untuk menghibur dan dapat menghubung-kan dengan sangat baik lingkungan yang santai dan lingkungan pembelajaran di dalam kelas.
	Multimedia diharapkan menjadi alat bantu mengajar yang akan membuat pembelajaran efektif karena multimedia merupakan gabungan elemen-elemen visu-al, audio, dan audio visual; seperti gambar, teks, suara, animasi, dan video. Vaughan (2011, p 1) mengemukakan bahwa multi-media merupakan kombinasi dari teks, gambar, suara, animasi, dan video yang disampaikan melalui peranti komputer, elektronik, atau alat hasil rekayasa digital lainnya.
	Parel dan Jain (2008, pp. 57-58) menyebut-kan ada tiga macam alat bantu mengajar, yaitu alat bantu visual, audio dan audio visual.
	Alat-alat bantu mengajar tersebut dapat dipilih oleh guru agar sesuai dengan kemampuan berbahasa (membaca, mendengar, berbicara, menulis) yang akan di-ajarkan. Alat bantu visual seperti gambar memiliki manfaat yaitu mampu menyam-paikan makna dan mampu menarik perhatian siswa (Harmer, 2007, pp. 178-179).

METODOLOG PENELITAN

Penelitian yang dilakukan termasuk dalam penelitian pengembangan (Research and Development). Hasil dari penelitian ini berupa produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount untuk siswa kelas VIII di MTsN II Yogyakarta yang dibuat dengan meng-gunakan program Adobe Flash CS5 dan program pendukung lain.

Model pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran dalam penelitian ini meng-acu pada Alessi dan Trollip (2001, p. 410). Model pengembangan dari Allessi dan Trollip mencakup tiga langkah yang terdiri dari perencanaan, desain, dan pengembangan. Evaluasi pada model pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran ini berlangsung dalam tiga tahap, yaitu uji Alpha (Alpha Testing), uji Beta (Beta Testing), dan validasi program.

Tempat penelitian adalah di MTsN II Yogyakarta. Penelitian dimulai pada tanggal 24 November 2014 hingga 20 Ja-nuari 2015. Subjek uji coba penelitian adalah siswa MTsN II Yogyakarta kelas VIII C dan G. Jumlah subjek uji coba yaitu masing-masing siswa dalam 1 kelas. Rinciannya adalah kelas VIII C berjumlah 33 siswa untuk kegiatan uji beta (beta testing) dan kelas VIII G berjumlah 34 siswa untuk kegiatan validasi program (pretest, uji coba produk, dan posttest).

Langkah-langkah pada penelitian ini meliputi: tahap perencanaan, desain, dan pengembangan. Tahap perencanaan yaitu: mengidentifikasi bidang/ruang lingkup materi teks recount, mengidentifikasi karakteristik siswa, mengidentifikasi kebutuhan teknis, mengumpulkan dan menentukan sumber-sumber, dan melakukan diskusi ide awal. Tahap desain yaitu: membuat flowchart, membuat storyboard, dan menyiapkan skrip. Tahap pengembangan meliputi: menyiapkan teks, warna, gambar, audio dan video, menggabungkan bagian-bagian dalam program Adobe Flash CS 5, melakukan evaluasi dengan uji Alpha (Alpha Testing), melakukan evaluasi dengan uji Beta (Beta Testing), menghasilkan produk akhir, dan validasi program.

Jenis data dalam penelitian ini adalah jenis data kuantitatif yang diperoleh dari angket yang telah diberikan kepada ahli media, ahli materi, dan siswa kelas VIII MTsN. Data kuantitatif tersebut dikon-versikan menjadi data kualitatif. Data yang digali dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut. Pertama adalah ketepatan materi untuk ketercapaian kompetensi pembel-ajaran di MTsN II Yogyakarta. Aspek yang dikaji adalah aspek pembelajaran dan aspek isi. Data diperoleh dengan kuisoner dari ahli materi. Kedua adalah ketepatan rancangan software multimedia pembelajaran. Aspek yang dikaji adalah aspek tampilan dan aspek pemrograman. Data diperoleh de-ngan kuisoner dari ahli media. Ketiga ada-lah aspek layak dari multimedia pembel-ajaran. Data diperoleh dengan kuisoner dari siswa.

Pengumpulan data selama proses pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount menggunakan teknik observasi, wawancara, angket dan tes. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam mengumpulkan data berupa instrumen penilaian untuk menilai produk yang telah dikembangkan dari aspek instruksional, aspek isi, aspek tampilan, aspek pemrograman. Untuk mengetahui penilaian dari siswa secara mendalam terhadap produk multimedia pembelajaran yang dikembangkan, maka peneliti menggunakan instrumen penilaian dari aspek pembelajaran, aspek materi, dan aspek tampilan. Sebelum instrumen penilaian diberikan, instrumen tersebut divalidasi terlebih dahulu oleh validator ahli.

Data hasil penelitian ini berupa tanggapan ahli materi, ahli media, dan siswa tentang kualitas produk yang telah dikembangkan yang ditinjau dari aspek pembelajaran, aspek materi, dan aspek media. Data berupa komentar, saran revisi, dan hasil pengamatan peneliti selama proses ujicoba dianalisis secara deskriptif kualitatif, dan disimpulkan sebagai masukan untuk memperbaiki atau merevisi produk yang telah dikembangkan. Sedangkan data berupa skor tanggapan ahli materi, ahli media, dan siswa yang diperoleh dari kuesioner, dianalisis secara deskriptif kuantitatif dengan menggunakan teknik kategorisasi yang mengacu pada acuan rumus dari Sukardjo dan Sari (2008, pp. 82-86).

No	KESIMPULAN
1	Hasil penelitian dan pengembang-an program multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount diperoleh hasil berupa karakteristik produk yang dihasilkan mencakup petun-juk, Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar (SK dan KD), uraian materi, rang-kuman, kuis, dan evaluasi. Petunjuk terdiri dari petunjuk belajar dan petunjuk prog-ram. Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar (SK dan KD) meliputi Standar Kompetensi, Kompetensi Dasar, dan Indi-kator. Uraian materi berisi video penje-lasan, dan bentuk-bentuk teks recount. Rangkuman merupakan sekilas materi yang penting untuk dipahami siswa. Kuis berbentuk drag and drop items dan multiple-choice items. Evaluasi yang disajikan ber-bentuk multiple-choice items. Produk yang dikembangkan layak digunakan sebagai salah satu sumber bel-ajar pelengkap ditinjau dari penilaian ahli materi I pada aspek pembelajaran yang memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,62 dengan kategori Sangat Baik dan aspek isi yang memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,72 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Penilaian ahli materi II pada aspek pembelajaran mendapatkan nilai rata-rata 4,18 dengan kategori Sangat Baik dan aspek isi memperoleh nilai rata- rata 4,54 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Penilaian ahli media I pada aspek tampilan media memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,07 de-ngan kategori Baik dan aspek pemrogram-an memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,50 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Penilaian ahli media II pada aspek tampilan media mendapatkan nilai rata-rata 4,00 dengan kategori Baik dan aspek pemrograman memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,60 dengan kategori Sangat Baik.Hasil uji beta (beta testing) memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,19 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Hasil uji coba produk memperoleh nilai rata-rata 3,92 dengan kategori Baik. Peningkatan skor gain (gain score) rata-rata seluruh siswa dari hasil pretest dan posttest sebesar 0,90 (N-gain ≥ 0,7). Hal ini berarti keefektifan produk yang dikembangkan termasuk kategori tinggi.
2	Pemanfaatan program multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pem-belajaran teks recount efektif hasilnya apa-bila guru menggunakannya dengan cara yang tepat.

Jurnal 3

Judul : Model Pengembangan Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Berbasis ICT (Information and Communication Technology) dalam Meningkatkan Prestasi Belajar Siswa SMA

Penulis : Sariakin

Tahun : 2016

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
Pesatnya komunikasi dan interaksi global telah menempatkan bahasa Inggris sebagai salah satu media yang mutlak kebutuhannya. Tanpa kemampuan berbahasa Inggris yang memadai, para lulusan SMA akan menghadapi banyak masalah dalam menjalin interaksi global tersebut.	Pengertian ICT (Information and Communication Technology) atau yang lebih dikenal dengan TIK (teknologi informasi dan komunikasi) diungkapkan oleh beberapa orang ahli (Abdul Kadir, 2003:13) antara lain dalam kamus Oxford dituliskan bahwa teknologi informasi dan komunikasi adalah studi atau penggunaan peralatan elektronika terutama komputer untuk menyimpan, menganalisis dan mendistribusikan informasi apa saja, termasuk kata-kata, bilangan dan gambar.
Pengajaran mereka masih terpaku pada materi dari buku pelajaran tanpa peduli terhadap pikiran, perasaan, dan kemajuan belajar siswanya. Selama proses pembelajaran, guru bahasa Inggris belum memberdayakan seluruh potensi dirinya sehingga sebagian besar siswa belum mampu mencapai kompetensi individu yang diperlukan untuk mengikuti pelajaran bahasa Inggris lanjutan. Sebagian besar siswa belum belajar sampai pada tingkat komunikasi dalam menggunakan bahasa Inggris secara maksimal. Siswa baru mampu mempelajari, membaca, menghafal kosa kata, menulis, dan mengingat kaidah-kaidah bahasa Inggris. Demikian pula gagasan inovatif pada tingkat ingatan, mereka belum dapat menggunakan dan menerapkan bahasa Inggris secara efektif dalam berkomunikasi sehari-hari yang kontekstual dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris baik secara lisan maupun secara tulisan.	Prinsip umum penggunaan teknologi, dalam hal ini ICT adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Efektif dan Efisien. Penggunaan ICT harus memperhatikan manfaat dari teknologi ini dalam hal mengefektifkan belajar, meliputi pemerolehan ilmu, kemudahan dan keterjangkauan baik waktu maupun biaya. (2) Optimal. dengan menggunakan ICT, paling tidak pembelajaran menjadi bernilai "lebih" daripada tanpa menggunakannya. Nilai lebih yang diberikan ICT adalah keluasan cakupan, kekinian (up to date), kemodernan, dan keterbukaan .(3) Menarik artinya dalam prinsip ini, pembelajaran dikelas akan lebih menarik dan memancing keingintahuan yang lebih. (4) Merangsang daya kreatifitas berpikir pelajar.

METODE PENELITIAN

Metode yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini adalah ICT. Dalam penelitian ini penulis menggambarkan secara deskriptif dan holistik tentang pembelajaran bahasa Inggris berbasis ICT untuk meningkatkan prestasi siswa menengah atas (SMA) dalam bahasa Inggris secara menyeluruh. Sebuah model pembelajaran yang berbasis ICT dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik apabila segala perangkatnya dapat disiapkan dengan baik pula. Salah satu perangkat yang tidak dapat dihindari adalah kemampuan pengajar mengenal berbagai program yang berkenaan dengan teknologi yang digunakan. Selain itu, peranti keras dan peranti lunak tersedia sehingga pembelajarannya dapat dilaksanakan secara efektif dan efisien.

Model pembelajaran yang dilakukannya secara offline dan online dengan jumlah kegiatan online sebanyak 10 pertemuan. Pertemuan online mempergunakan mailing list, fasilitas yang disediakan oleh yahoo groups dengan dimoderatori oleh guru.

Langkah-langkah pembelajarannya dilaksanakan sebagai berikut.

1) Siswa ditugasi untuk menjelajahi internet dan berbagai situs yang tersedia sebanyak mungkin untuk mencari, menemukan, dan mengunduh artikel berita dan materi pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan topik dan tugas yang diberikan.

2) Siswa membuat draf tulisan awal pada pertemuan offline lalu mengirimkannya ke milis sehingga semua anggota milis dapat membaca tulisan masing-masing.

3) Untuk setiap tugas, siswa diminta memberikan komentar terhadap tulisan empat siswa lain.

4) siswa diminta memperbaiki tulisan awal dan membahas tulisan yang telah direvisi pada pertemuan offline.

5) siswa mengirimkan esai ke milis Writing IV dan memberikan komentar terhadap komentar yang mereka terima dari siswa lain.

6) siswa mendiskusikan komentar pada pertemuan offline.

7) siswa diminta untuk membuat tulisan akhir.

KESIMPULAN

Pemanfaatan ICT untuk pembelajaran keterampilan berbahasa tidak hanya tertuju pada kegiatan belajar-mengajar, tetapi juga dapat dilakukan untuk menghasilkan media pembelajaran. Teknologi informasi dan komunikasi dapat dimanfaatkan dalam segala bidang kehidupan, termasuk bidang pendidikan bahasa Inggris. Melalui produknya manusia mampu mengubah perilaku hidupnya dan pola berpikirnya secara positif sehingga tercipta berbagai perilaku dan pola berpikir, misalnya, perilaku tidak mau tertinggal, ingin cepat, toleran, berpikir kritis, dan kreatif. Oleh sebab itu, penggunaan teknologi informasi yang tepat merupakan suatu keterampilan yang sangat diperlukan dalam mengembangkan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris para siswa khususnya siswa SMA pada saat ini.

JURNAL 4

Judul : Pembuatan Aplikasi Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Pada Handphone Dengan J2ME

Penulis : Yusni Nyura

Tahun : 2010

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
Perkembangan bahasa inggris yang semakin meluas sehingga bahasa inggris seolah-olah menjadi bahasa kedua setelah bahasa indonesia. Hal tersebut tidak bisa dipungkiri lagi karena pentingnya penggunaan bahasa inggris dalam segala bidang seperti percakapan, pendidikan, perdagangan, dan lain-lain.	Java adalah bahasa pemrograman Object-Oriented dengan unsur-unsur seperti bahasa C++ dan bahasa-bahasa lainnya yang memiliki libraries yang cocok untuk lingkungan internet. Java dapat melakukan banyak hal dalam melakukan pemrograman, seperti membuat animasi halaman web, pemrograman java untuk ponsel dan aplikasi interaktif. java juga dapat digunakan untuk handphone, internet, dan lain-lain
	Karakteristik-karakteristik Java a. Sederhana Bahasa pemrograman Java menggunakan sintaks yang mirip dengan bahasa C++ namun sintaks pada Java telah banyak diperbaiki, terutama dengan menghilangkan pointer yang rumit dan multiple inheritance. Java juga menggunakan automatic memory allocation dan garbage collection. b. Berorientasi Objek Java merupakan bahasa pemrograman berorientasi objek yang memungkinkan program untuk dibuat secara modular dan digunakan kembali. c. Terdistribusi Java dibuat untuk memudahkan distribusi aplikasi dengan adanya networking libraries yang terintegrasi dalam Java. d. Interpreted Program Java dijalankan menggunakan program Interpreter, yaitu Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Hal ini menyebabkan source code Java yang telah dikompilasi menjadi bytecodes dapat dijalankan pada berbagai platform. e. Robust Java mempunyai reliabilitas yang tinggi. Kompiler pada Java mempunyai kemampuan mendeteksi error yang lebih baik dibandingkan bahasa pemrograman yang lain. Java mempunyai Runtime Exception Handling untuk membantu mengatasi error pada pemrograman. f. Secure Sebagai bahasa pemrograman aplikasi internet dan terdistribusi, Java memiliki beberapa mekanisme keamanan untuk menjaga agar aplikasi tidak digunakan untuk merusak sistem komputer yang menjalankan aplikasi tersebut. g. Architecture Neutral Program Java tidak bergantung pada platform dimana program akan dijalankan. Cukup dibuat satu program yang dapat dijalankan pada berbagai platform dengan Java Virtual Machine. h. Portable Source code maupun program Java dapat dengan mudah dibawa ke berbagai platform berbeda tanpa harus dikompilasi ulang. i. Performance Kinerja Java sering kali dikatakan kurang, namun kinerja Java dapat ditingkatkan menggunakan compiler Java lain seperti buatan Inprise, Microsoft maupun Symantec yang menggunakan Just In Time Compilers (JIT). j. Multithreaded Java dapat membuat suatu program yang mampu melakukan beberapa pekerjaan secara sekaligus dan simultan. k. Dynamic Java dapat didesain untuk dapat dijalankan pada lingkungan yang dinamis. Perubahan suatu class dengan menambahkan properties ataupun metode dapat dilakukan tanpa menggangu program yang menggunakan class tersebut.
	MIDlet adalah aplikasi yang ditulis untuk MIDP. Aplikasi MIDlet adalah bagian dari kelas javax.microedition.midlet.MIDlet yang didefinisikan pada MIDP. MIDlet berupa kelas abstrak yang merupakan sub kelas dari bentuk dasar aplikasi sehingga antarmuka antar aplikasi J2ME dan aplikasi manajemen pada perangkat dapat terbentuk.

METODE PENELITIAN

Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah dengan pembuatan aplikasi pada Handphone untuk pembelajaran bahasa inggris. Adapun bahasa pemrograman yang digunakan dalam pembuatan program ini adalah J2ME dengan standar CLDC 1.1 dan MIDP 2.0.

Adapun mekanisme perancangan aplikasi tersebut antara lain:

1. Spesifikasi Sistem

Spesifikasi komputer yang digunakan adalah :

1. Prosesor Intel Pentium II 350 mhz

2. SDRAM 64 MB

3. Sistem Operasi Windows XP SP 2

4. Terinstall software J2ME

5. Ruang ksosong harddisk minimal 5 MB

2. Desain Antar Muka

Pada aplikasi ini akan menggunakan beberapa komponen dari J2ME seperti List, Ticker, Alert, Form, ChoiceGroup, StringItem dan Image. Flowchart di dalam aplikasi ini terbagi menjadi beberapa bagian seperti flowchart untuk menu utama, flowchart menu soal dan flowchart untuk tampilan Tenses yang ada dalam aplikasi ini.

3.3. Flowchart Aplikasi

Aplikasi terdiri dari 2 menu utama yaitu menuPembelajaran Tenses dan Menu Soal Tenses. Padasaat aplikasidibuka pertama kali / ketika MIDlet dijalankan pertama kali maka akan ada proses inisialisasi (AMS dijalankan). Kemudian proses berikutnya adalah fungsi MIDlet diaktifkan yaitu pada startApp( ), fungsinya agar MIDlet dalam keadaan aktif (layar aktif). Setelah itu akan muncul Alert sebagai pesan pembuka. Sampai disini user dihadapkan pada kondisi untuk memilih apakah ingin masuk ke menu utama atau tidak. Jika Tidak maka aplikasi / MIDlet dalam keadaan Paused. Setelah itu saat user keluar dari MIDlet maka metode destroyApp( ) akan dijalankan sebelum MIDlet benar-benar tidak dapat berjalan lagi dan selesai. Jika Ya maka akan muncul layar splash (layar yang dimunculkan beberapa saat tepat sebelum menu utama muncul). Setelah layar splash muncul, tampilan berikutnya adalah tampilan menu utama aplikasi.

Dalam Pembuatan Aplikasi Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris ini menggunakan J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition) karena dapat digunakan untuk menangani pemrograman di dalam perangkat-perangkat kecil dalam hal ini adalah mobile device seperti pager, smart card, cell phone, handheld PDA, Handphone, dan termasuk ke dalam kategori software support hardware. Dalam aplikasi ini yang ditampilkan adalah pembelajaran Tenses pada bahasa Inggris beserta menu latihan soal Tenses, yang dapat dijalankan pada emulator yang telah disediakan yaitu pada device / alat mobile device yang sesungguhnya. Aplikasi yang dibuat bersifat informasi (menampilkan data).

NO	KESIMPULAN
1	Program dapat dijalankan pada emulator yang telah disediakan.
2	Program dapat dijalankan pada device / alat mobile device yang sesungguhnya.
3	Pembelajaran tenses bahasa Inggris pada pembuatan aplikasi ini dapat ditampilkan, dan bersifat informasi (menampilkan data)

Jurnal 5

Judul : Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis Dalam Pembelajaran Sains Untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas II SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya

Penulis : Nanik Wahyuni. Irena Yolanita Maureen, S.Pd, M.Sc

Tahun : 2016

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
Terjadinya kendala dalam proses penyampaian pesan yang dilakukan oleh pendidik kepada peserta didik ketika dilakukannya kegiatan proses belajar mengajar sehingga penulis ingin memberikan metode pengajaran yang menarik dan efektif untuk diterapkan dalam proses pengajaran untuk siswa SD khususnya dengan menggunakan media puzzle	Arief Sadiman (2008:7) media adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat digunakan untuk menyalurkan pesan dari pengirim ke penerima sehingga dapat merangsang pikiran, perasaan, perhatian dan minat serta perhatian siswa sedemikian rupa sehingga proses belajar terjadi.
	Media Puzzle adalah alat yang digunakan untuk menyalurkan pesan dengan cara menyambungkan bagian satu dengan yang lainnya sehingga membentuk suatu gambar. Dalam penelitian yang dilakukan sebelumnya diketahui bahwa ada hubungan yang signifikan antara pemanfaatan media Puzzle dengan kreatifitas berpikir anak, dan pemanfaatan media Puzzle jika dilaksanakan dengan baik akan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir anak terutama dalam pengenalan bentuk. (Chaiyunah:2006)
	Media pembelajaran memiliki beberapa nilai praktis yaitu, yang pertama media dapat mengatasi keterbatasan pengalaman yang dimiliki siswa, yang kedua media dapat mengatasi batas ruang kelas, yang ketiga media dapat memungkinkan terjadinya interaksi langsung antara peserta dengan lingkungan, yang keempat media dapat menghasilkan keseragaman pengamatan, yang kelima media dapat menanamkan konsep dasar yang benar, nyata, dan tepat, yang keenam media dapat membangkitkan motivasi dan merangsang peserta untuk belajar dengan baik, yang ketujuh media dapat membangkitkan keinginan dan minat baru, kedelapan media dapat mengontrol kecepatan belajar siswa, dan yang terakhir media dapat memberikan pengalaman yang menyeluruh dari hal-hal yang konkret sampai abstrak. (Sanjaya 2008:209)
	Djamarah dalam Aunurrahman (2009:115) mengemukakan bahwa motivasi terkait erat dengan kebutuhan. Semakin besar kebutuhan seseorang akan sesuatu yang ingin ia capai, maka akan semakin kuat motivasi untuk mencapainya. Kebutuhan yang kuat terhadap sesuatu akan mendorong seseorang untuk mencapainya dengan sekuat tenaga. Hanya dengan motovasi anak didik dapat tergerak hatinya untuk belajar bersama teman-temannya yang lain. Tanpa adanya motivasi tidak mungkin siswa memiliki kemauan untuk belajar.
	Trianto (2007:29) mengatakan pembelajaran terjadi apabila anak bekerja atau belajar menangani tugas-tugas yang belum dipelajari namun tugas-tugas itu masih berada dalam jangkauan kemampuannya atau tugas-tugas tersebut berada dalam zone of proximal development.

METODE PENELITIAN

penelitian dengan judul “Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis Pada Pembelajaran Sains dengan Subpokok Bahasan Pertumbuhan Hewan dan Tumbuhan Terhadap Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya”, dikategorikan sebagai penelitian deskriptif kuantitatif dengan jenis penelitian Pre Experimental Design.

Ada 3 jenis design yang dimasukkan ke dalam kategori pre experimental design, yaitu (1) one shot study case (2) pre test and post test (3) statistic group comparison. Model yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah model kedua yaitu one group pretest-posttest design. Penelitian semu dengan model kedua ini dilaksanakan pada satu kelompok saja tanpa ada kelompok pembanding.

Dalam penerapan penelitian dengan menggunakan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis dibutuhkan tiga kali pertemuan dalam pembelajaran agar hasil yang didapat bisa maksimal. Pertemuan pertama, dilakukan pembelajaran secara klasikal dan pengenalan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis, selain itu pada akhir pertemuan pertama siswa diberi soal pretest. Pertemuan kedua, dijelaskan mengenai tata cara dan ujicoba Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis dalam pembelajaran. Pertemuan ketiga, dilakukan pembelajaran langsung serta aplikasi Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis dalam pembelajaran, serta pemberian LKS sebagai posttest Penelitian ini akan dilaksanakan pada minggu keempat bulan juni selama satu minggu.

Penelitian ini bertempat di ruang kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya dan dilakukan pada saat pulang sekolah setelah siswa melakukan pembelajaran secara formal. Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah observasi dan tes. Teknik observasi digunakan untuk memantau peran guru dalam pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis serta untuk mengukur ranah afektif dan psikomotorik pada siswa. Observasi yang dipilih adalah observasi sistematis dengan mengadakan pengamatan secara langsung terhadap suatu proses kegiatan pembelajaran untuk menilai aktifitas peserta didik dan guru dengan menggunakan pedoman observasi. Observasi yang dilakukan berpedoman pada instrument observasi, sedangkan yang diobservasi adalah proses pembelajaran Sains dengan menggunakan media Puzzle Metamorfosis.

Observasi yang dipilih disini adalah observasi sistematis dengan mengadakan pengamatan secara langsung terhadap suatu proses kegiatan pembelajaran Sains khususnya pokok bahasan pertumbuhan hewan dan tumbuhan yang dilakukan siswa kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya. Sedangkan teknik tes digunakan untuk mengukur ranah kognitif pada siswa. Dalam penelitian ini peneliti menggunakan jenis tes prestasi atau achievement test, yaitu test yang digunakan untuk mengukur pencapaian seseorang setelah mempelajari sesuatu. Tes merupakan alat untuk mengukur prestasi siswa, dalam tes ini berisi uraian yang menuntut siswa untuk menjawab soal dalam bentuk menguaraikan, menjelaskan, dan dalam bentuk lain yang sesuai dengan pemahaman siswa yang diterpakan dengan bahasa siswa itu sendiri dalam menjawab tes uraian tersebut.

Subyek penelitian ini adalah siswa-siswi kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya sebanyak 42 anak. Penelitian yang akan dilakukan hanya terfokus pada siswa kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 maka, hasil atau kesimpulan dari panelitian ini hanya berlaku bagi SDN Swunggaling I/382 khususnya kelas 2. karakteristik siswa SDN Sawunggaling I/382 dipengaruhi dua hal utama yaitu keadaan ekonomi yang sebagian besar menengah kebawah dan rendahnya latar belakang pendidikan orang tua sehingga mereka kurang perhatian terhadap pendidikan anaknya

NO	KESIMPULAN
1	Proses pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis dilakukan dengan membagi siswa menjadi kelompok-kelompok kecil yang masing-masing anggota kelompok beranggotakan maksimal 4 orang. Guru memantau kerja tiap-tiap kelompok dan pada akhir pembelajaran siswa diberi LKS sebagai post test.
2	Hasil analisis observasi proses pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis dengan sumber data guru diperoleh nilai dari pengamat I sebesar 84,21% dan diperoleh nilai dari pengamat II sebesar 82, 45 % sehingga rerata dari pengamat I dan II adalah 83, 33 % jika hasil tersebut dikonsultasikan dengan kriteria maka tergolong baik sekali. Hasil analisis observasi proses pemanfaatan media pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis dengan sumber data siswa diperoleh nilai dari pengamat I sebesar 81, 25 % dan diperoleh nilai dari pengamat II sebesar 83, 33% sehingga rerata dari pengamat I dan II adalah 82, 29 %. Jika hasil tersebut dikonsultasikan dengan kriteria, maka tergolong baik sekali.
3	Terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan anatara pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis terhadap hasil belajar, hal ini dibuktikan melalui tes uji–t yang diperoleh nilai 7, 22 dengan db = 42 – 1 = 41 taraf signifikan 5 % sehingga diperoleh t tabel 1,70. Dari hasil perhitungan tersebut diketahui bahwa t hitung lebih besar dari t tabel yaitu 7, 22 > 1,70.

Jurnal 6

Judul : Preparing Tomorrow’s English Language Arts Teachers Today : Principles and Practice For Infusing Technology

Penulis : Carol A. Pope and Jeffrey N. Golup

Tahun : 2000

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
Teachers using technology in their English language arts classrooms are not only improving their instruction for their students; they are changing the very nature of that instruction. The problems that are found in this paper are How do we prepare these kinds of teachers—the kinds of teachers who know their content (English language arts), know content pedagogy (how to teach English language arts), and know instructional technology (how to infuse technology appropriately into that teaching)	We offer the following seven principles as touchstones for infusing technology into English language arts teacher preparation programs. These principles grow from and correlate with the National Council of Teachers of English Guidelines for the Preparation of Teachers of English Language Arts (1996) and the International Society for Technology in Education National Educational Technology Standards for Students: Connecting Curriculum and Technology(2000).
	Technology should be a naturally supporting background for both the content and the pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) of English language arts.
	To infuse this technology, we must build on what we know from research and practice that is, "what we know about reading [and literature], writing, speaking, listening, viewing and visually representing" (National Council of Teachers of English, Standards, p. 1).
	Besides the dynamic impact of technology on our vocabulary, technology has also brought us an expanded view of "what is considered text and how text is prepared" (National Council of Teachers of English, Guidelines, p. 8). The Internet, hypertext documents (like the ones in this online journal), web sites, bibliographies with url addresses, e-mail, and personal web sites (visual representations of ourselves and our work) all are different kinds of texts, different genres with their own emerging characteristics. In English language arts teacher preparation programs, we need to address these literacy shifts, varying text forms, and the attendant skills new teachers will need to both use and teach these new texts and languages.

METODE PENELITIAN

Principles of Technology Infusion:

We and our students who will soon become teachers need to:

1. introduce and infuse technology in context;

They will be at different levels of development as users of technology, and we must determine. To carry this experience to the next level of learning, Carol's writing methods students engage in ongoing email correspondence with students at a local middle school. The methods students help the middle school students with their writing, offering suggestions for revision and serving as a real, appreciative audience. The middle school students get substantial, individualized help with their language, and the methods students get to know middle school students while learning the instructional revision approaches and communication skills beneficial for young adolescents. and honor those levels. Then, within our classes we can build the instructional scaffolds for students to advance as technology users while staying focused on teaching English language arts.

2. focus on the importance of technology as a literacy tool;

In English language arts teacher preparation programs, it is critical to acknowledge the impact technology has had on our language—how we read, write, view, and visually represent information. Words used everyday such as windows,files, menu, and mouse have new meanings and mental images; headlines include such prefixes as cyber, e-, and hyper; media ads and discussions include such terms as dot com, url, and www. Clearly, ad creators, writers, editors, and producers assume that members of the reading public understand this new language. These vast lexicon changes reflect not only a vocabulary shift but also a thinking shift. We have new "pictures" in our reading and listening memories, pictures which have moved into our daily communication.

3. model English language arts learning and teaching while infusing technology;

One of the critical lessons to learn as a teacher in a technologically rich environment is that we will never be completely caught up; we will never know everything. We will constantly learn with and from our students. As a result, the English language arts classroom will necessarily become learning-centered and learner-centered, with both teacher and student functioning in both roles. To ensure that our soon-to-be teachers understand this shift, we need to create and model how this kind of classroom looks and functions.

4. evaluate critically when and how to use technology in English language arts classroom;

Teacher educators, as well as our students, need to be critical consumers of technology, to be

thoughtful users who question, reflect, and refract (Pope, 1999) on the best times and ways to

integrate technology. To be models of this process, we need to be critical evaluators in our own methods classes and involve our students in that process. The goal of this critical analysis of technology integration is to articulate and internalize a process for questioning and probing both the why and how of infusing technology through various applications, programs, web sites, methods of teaching, or communication tools. If teachers use this process, they will become teacher-researchers in their own classrooms. They will systematically pose questions, examine when it is appropriate and useful to integrate technology and when it is not, and follow through with the implementation and evaluation of the technology use. In such a process they will be "informed, adjusted, or validated by systematic classroom observation" (Selfe, 1992, p. 33).

5. provide a wide range of opportunities to use technology;

To provide diverse experiences and perspectives, we can infuse opportunities for students to learn to work the technology itself and to develop those technological skills through the study of English language arts content as well as the English language arts content pedagogy. Possibilities abound for the integration of technological opportunities that relate to English

language arts content. Students can create web sites, "read" the Internet, participate in online

discussions (ListServes, real-time chat rooms, asynchronous discussions, videoconferences), and use all kinds of writing process skills on computers (create texts, add graphics and pictures, determine appropriate formats, revise extensively, and edit). The content and pedagogy merge in such experiences.

6. examine and determine ways of analyzing, evaluating, and grading English language arts

technology projects;

Technology products are new genres for most of us, and they require a new set of process skills. Understandably we may be uncertain about how to evaluate the students' process, the quality of the work, and the product itself. When we infuse technology into our English language arts teacher preparation programs, we as teacher educators come face to face with these challenges. We are pushed to examine and think about these new-found forms, genres, and products. With our students we can work to determine the best ways of evaluating and grading them. We can make these kinds of decisions by (a) keeping the content up front—that is, what is the content of the product? (b) determining the objective for the project itself—that is, what was the goal of the process and the product? what were students to learn? (c) using that information to create rubrics and evaluation descriptors.

7. emphasize issues of equity and diversity.

According to the NCTE Guidelines, English language arts "teachers should be sensitive to

student needs so that all students, regardless of differences, receive encouragement, support, and opportunities to learn" (p. 11). We need for our soon-to-be-teachers to both witness and understand the diverse accessibility to technology their school and their students will have. And they must consider this variability in their class assignments, opportunities for use in the school day, and homework expectations. In our teacher preparation programs we need to reference this challenge in our own assignments, classroom work, and expectations.

KESIMPULAN

From these principles and examples of infusing technology into English language arts teacher

preparation, clearly the classrooms of today and tomorrow will look very different. No longer

will the teacher be the dispenser of information; teachers and students will be learners together In such an environment students participate actively and directly in their own education. They will not rely solely on the teacher but will use the Internet and electronic tools and media to gather information and gain insights. "The increased use of the Internet and the proliferation of websites has brought about a new set of basic skills for students (and even adults) to master: information literacy skills. Paul Gilster, in his book, Digital Literacy, defines this kind of literacy as `the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers'" (Golub, pp. 52-54

This shift to a learning-centered classroom does not mean, however, that the teacher is obsolete. Instead, it demands that the teacher's role change from that of an "information-giver" to one of "designer" and "director" of instruction. Teachers need to design worthwhile problems for students to solve and worthwhile projects for students to pursue. As students work on these activities, the teacher "directs" the students, offering suggestions and serving as a respondent for their emerging insights. Using the principles we offer above, we suggest that English language arts methods classes can infuse technology in a way that does not interfere with the content pedagogy but supports it in a way that actively involves students and prepares them with the technical and pedagogical skills for creating the new learning-centered classroom.

Jurnal 7

Judul : Connecting Informal and Formal Learning Experiences in The Age of Participatory Media

Penulis : Glen Bull, Ann Thompson, Mike Searson, Joe Garofalo, John Park, Carl Young, & John Lee

Tahun : 2008

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
The renaissance stimulated by the World Wide Web is generating multiple formats and channels of communication and creativity. These include blogs, wikis, instant messaging, and texting in the realm of writing, podcasting in audio, countless sites such as Flickr for distribution and sharing of images, and video shared via YouTube and other sites. The Pew Internet and American Life project reports that the majority of all teens are now engaged in active creation of online content. The rise of social media reflects new opportunities and outlets for creativity. Increased youth engagement through these activities represents a repurposing of what Clay Shirky terms a cognitive surplus. Shirky, a professor in the Interactive Telecommunications Program at New York University, believes that a movement from passive activities such as watching television to more active and creative pursuits is emerging as a use of the cognitive surplus in the Web 2.0 era.	Sterling (2008) suggests that the energy and creativity emerging outside schools should be harnessed and linked to the academic enterprise within schools. Capitalizing on these tools for creative expression in schools is more difficult than it might appear.
	The National Science Foundation (NSF) employs the term “informal learning” to describe learning and engagement that occurs outside formal school setting.
	Informal learning happens throughout people’s lives in a highly personalized manner based on their particular needs, interests, and past experiences. This type of multi-faceted learning is voluntary, self-directed, and often mediated within a social context (Falk, 2001, Dierking et al., 2004); it provides an experiential base and motivation for further activity and subsequent learning. (NSF, 2006, Section I, Introduction)
	Prenksy (2001) coined the term “digital natives” to describe this generation of students who are all “‘native speakers’ of the digital language of computers, video games and the Internet” (p. 1).

METODE PENELITIAN

Challenges in Adapting Web 2.0 Technologies to School Use:

There are numerous constraints in school that present challenges:

1. School content must address specific learning objectives.

2. Many learning objectives are subject to time constraints.

3. Addition of technology can increase the complexity of classroom management.

4. Schools are heavily invested in print technologies and often constrain Internet access in ways that limit access to online media tools.

5. Teachers have limited models for effective integration of media in their teaching.

6. Only limited research is available to guide best practice.

Encouraging Dynamic Dialog

In the forthcoming summit (NTLS X), participants will explore ways in which dynamic media used in informal settings outside school can be adapted for school use. By dynamic media we are referring to both technical characteristics – media that is interactive, multilayered, and mobile – as well as cultural characteristics – media that is remixable, sharable, and used as a springboard for social interactions.

Because of the diversity of informal learning settings, there is no single organization that represents these types of uses in the same way that the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (for example) represents mathematics educators. However, inclusion of some of the leaders from informal learning settings will provide an opportunity to begin a dialog with teacher educators representing core content areas.

Linking Informal to Formal Learning

In order to translate informal use of communication technologies outside school into applied activities inside school, educators must consider content and the pedagogies best suited for bridging these in- and out-of-school uses of technology. Schools of education provide a natural entry point for considering possible approaches for accomplishing this.

KESIMPULAN

Social media are changing the world in ways not yet understood. The effects are rippling through news, business, entertainment, and the political arena. A new generation of students is significantly more active in the way that they create and interact with one another.

One effect on schools and schooling is apparent. The next generation will live in a world that is very different from the previous generation. The current generation of educators is not well equipped to serve as guides in this process – we are all learning together as new media technologies emerge. In fact, teens are often more experienced in use of these technologies than other demographic groups.

The informal learning that occurs in the context of participatory media offers significant opportunities for increased student engagement in formal learning settings. The experience with communication technologies that teenagers today possess must be tapped by educators and connected to pedagogy and content, however, in order to address learning objectives in schools. Teacher education faculty members are experienced in this arena. We are currently at a moment in time in which the current and next generation of educators each can make a genuine contribution by working together.

Jurnal 8

Judul : Multi-grade teaching practices in Austrian and Finnish primary schools

Penulis : Eeva Kaisa Hyry-Beihammer

Tahun : 2015

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
This article seeks to contribute to the discussion of rural education and teaching in multi-grade classes by reporting an investigation into the teaching strategies used by teachers of such classes in rural primary schools. The main focus is on small schools in Austria and Finland, defined in our study as schools with fewer than fifty students. In general, small schools are rural primary schools. They usually employ two or three teachers who teach different grades in the same classroom; this is called multi-grade or multi-age teaching.	multi-grade teaching has certain benefits, including student-centered learning and teaching processes, flexible teaching, a family-like and secure atmosphere, the ease of implementing innovative change, support for individual learning tempos, and flexible school-entry (e.g., Kalaoja & Pietarinen, 2009).
	multi-grade teaching can also be seen as especially challenging because of the widely varying needs of children of different ages. Despite its importance in primary education, there has been a lack of research on the practices used in multi-grade teaching. This article seeks to address this gap. Our research question “What kinds of teaching practices are used in multi-grade classes?” focuses on the micro-level of school pedagogy ( Fend, 2006) with the aim of identifying the learning and teaching possibilities and resources that are supported or available in multi-grade classrooms.
	Cornish (2006b) identifies additional practices or strategies used in multi-grade classes. “Split timetable or subject stagger” means that, for example, in a class with two grades, the grades study different subjects; the teacher prepares two different lessons and alternates between the grades. “Common timetable” means that students in each grade can study the same subject at the same time, but on the basis of different instructions and activities for each grade. “Some whole-class teaching” refers to a practice in which the subject areas are the same for both grades and parts of lessons (often introductions and conclusions) are taught to all groups together. “Whole-class teaching for the whole period” means that the two grades are taught the same subject and content at the same time. Cornish (2006b) also describes “within-grade grouping”, “cross-grade grouping”, and “peer tutoring”; these are practices in which students help one another.
	Hoffman (2002) emphasizes flexible grouping strategies as significant contributors to students’ learning in multi-age classes. One can also assume that successful organization will be linked to the student-related social practices of the teachers and fairly distributed time management between the different groups of learners.
	The following sub-categories of the first main category student group formation and subject organizing are primarily based on the definitions of multi-grade practices proposed byKalaoja (2006) and Cornish (2006b): 1. parallel curriculum: students share the same themes or subjects but study the syllabus of their grade; each grade is taught in turn, 2. curriculum rotation: an entire class studies the curriculum of one grade for one year; in the next school year, they follow the syllabus of the other grade; grades are taught together, 3. curriculum alignment and spiral curriculum: similar topics are identified in different grade curricula; students share the same themes or subjects; the basic concepts or ideas that are taught in the lower grades are deepened and expanded on in the upper grades, 4. subject stagger: grades study different subjects; each grade is taught in turn 5. whole-class teaching: grades study and are taught the same subject at the same time and use the same material.
	We began by reading the teacher narratives and differentiating episodes in which teachers described their various teaching practices and principles, often illustrating them with teaching situations from their own classes (Riessman, 2008).
	The episodes were then organized under different themes and sub-themes using a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis program called NVivo10, software that supports qualitative and mixed-methods research (Bazeley, 2007).

METODE PENELITIAN

The empirical part of this research is based on a study conducted in the context of Austrian and Finnish primary schools. Both countries feature nine years of compulsory basic education, preceded by one year of compulsory kindergarten in Austria and by one year of pre-primary education in Finland. Compulsory schooling starts at the age of six in Austria and at the age of seven in Finland. A specific feature of the Austrian education system is the four-year primary education structure (Volksschule) ( Austrian Federal Ministry of Education and Women’s Affairs, 2015). After completing these four years, students are assigned to three types of secondary level I schools (fifth–eighth grades): new secondary school (Neue Mittelschule), general secondary school, or academic secondary school. Secondary level I is followed by various options for secondary level II (ninth school year onward) in the Austrian education system. Finnish basic education consists of a nine-year comprehensive school (Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, 2015). The first six years of comprehensive school are usually called “primary school” (the term used in this article), and grades seven to nine are referred to as “lower secondary school”. In Finland, the school structure has been the same for all children during their first nine school years since the beginning of the 1970s, when the Finnish comprehensive school reform was enacted.

Teacher interviews (n = 14) were collected in three small Austrian rural schools in 2013 and in two small rural schools in northern Finland from 2010 to 2012. The Austrian schools were selected by first sending an email enquiry to 18 rural schools in one Austrian state. Two schools replied spontaneously, expressing interest in taking part in the research project. The other schools were contacted by telephone, and one additional school expressed its willingness to participate in the study. These three schools, located in different parts of the state, represent typical Austrian small rural schools: they are situated in the center of their small communities, not far from the church and the town hall. In two of the Austrian schools, there were two multi-grade classes and two class teachers, with about 25–30 students from preschool to the 4th grade (children five to ten years old). In the third school, all of its 11 students from preschool to the 4th grade formed one class with one teacher and a part-time teacher. In the Austrian schools, the data from teacher interviews (n = 7) were collected during two school visits of 2–3 days. Additionally, a head teacher who regularly visits school lessons of her teaching force was also interviewed.

The two Finnish schools were chosen as representative of “typical” small Finnish schools, with three multi-grade teaching groups and three class teachers. There were about 40–45 students from preschool to the 6th grade in both schools (children six–twelve years old). Both schools were located about 15 km from the center of the municipality and also from the next nearest school. All teachers came from neighboring villages or towns. In one Finnish school, the data from teacher interviews (n = 4) were collected during three school visits of 3–5 days. In the other Finnish school, data were collected during a one-day visit to the school (n = 3). Teachers were interviewed during the school day and were also visited in their classrooms for one lesson. In the classroom visits, the following aspects were observed: the arrangement of the classroom, the teaching material, the grouping of students, teachers’ utilization of time and how they shifted between different groups and stages, and students’ peer interactions. In this article, we use only the data from teacher interviews to answer the research question; however, we recognize that the observation data have improved our understanding of the teaching practices described by the teachers.

The duration of the interviews varied between 25 and 40 min. In this article, the interviewed teachers are referred to with pseudonyms. The code A after the pseudonym denotes an Austrian teacher; the code F, a Finnish teacher. These codes are used when the nationalities are not specified in the context of the text. The data consist of 14 transcribed interviews of class teachers: five female Austrian teachers (Bettina, Julia, Ines, Karin, and Linda), five female Finnish teachers (Johanna, Leena, Maria, Noora, and Petra), two male Austrian teachers (Chris and Hans), and two male Finnish teachers (Lauri and Matias). Ines (A), Noora (F), Petra (F), and Lauri (F) can be considered beginning teachers: at the time of data collection, they were working in their first jobs as teachers, having graduated 1–3 years previously. Huberman (1989) calls this stage of a teacher’s career the stage of coping or finding, where it is important to “survive” in the classroom. Julia (A), Johanna (F), Maria (F), and Matias (F) were in the stage of stabilizing (Huberman, 1989) in their teaching careers, having teaching experience of 4–7 years. Leena (F) and Bettina (A) began their teaching careers at the beginning of the 1990s; they were in the stage of experiment and active development (Huberman, 1989), like Chris (A), Hans (A), and Karin (A), who all had about ten years’ experience with teaching. On the basis of Leena (F) and Bettina’s (A) almost twenty years of teaching, they can be considered experienced teachers, as can Linda (A), who had taught for about thirty years.

During the interviews, teachers were asked to elaborate on how they had begun their careers and to describe their work in their small schools and multi-grade classes. They were also asked to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of multi-grade teaching and the use of peer learning in their teaching. The interviews were recorded on digital recorders and transcribed;

KESIMPULAN

The aim of our study was to gain insight into instructional practices in multi-grade classes in order to obtain a better understanding of learning and teaching possibilities in such settings. As data, we used interview responses collected from 14 teachers in Austrian and Finnish small primary schools. Austria and Finland were chosen due to their similarities in terms of multi-grade teaching traditions and small schools and their differences in approaches with regard to teacher education. The research results reveal that in both countries diverse teaching practices are used in multi-grade classes in small schools. Two main strategies can be identified. One strategy involves reducing or overcoming the heterogeneity of students as much as possible through teaching practices such as parallel curricula, curriculum rotation, and whole-class teaching. In such practices, the teacher either teaches one heterogeneous group, with the same teaching content and assignments for all students, or works with a age homogeneous group while the other group (or groups) works silently on their own assignments. A different approach uses practices that capitalize on the heterogeneity of the students but also reduce teaching demands, such as peer tutoring, personal work plans, or free work. These techniques we regard as optimal didactical solutions for multi-grade teaching for several reasons: They are grounded on the idea that heterogeneity is normal and that the search for homogeneity is a false friend for instruction; they focus on the perspective of individual children instead of groups; they support peer learning and foster cognitive as well as social development; and they emphasize subjective learning processes and goals as sampling criteria rather than objective aspects such as age or grade. Moreover, the data show the teachers' desire to organize their teaching in a workable way with different teaching groups and the integration of various subjects. The teachers also sought to support different learners through forms of differentiation and individualized learning guides such as work plans or differentiated assignments.

As mentioned above, it is impossible to identify a most common practice in multi-grade teaching from our study. A similar result has been found in earlier studies (Little, 2001 and Lindström and Lindahl, 2011). One reason for the wide range of practices could be the lack of multi-grade teaching options in textbooks and curricula, as well as in teacher education (Little, 2001). Thus, the teachers in our study may have developed their personal teaching styles primarily in practical situations in their own classes or with the help of their colleagues. Researchers have referred to this type of problem in terms of a divide between theory and practice, thereby raising doubts about the effectiveness of teacher education in general and suggesting that new and promising views of learning and teaching could better serve schools (Korthagen, 2010).

In addition to teaching practices that favour individual work on the part of students, we suggest that whole-group practices are needed to strengthen the social cohesion of the students and to support the cooperation of students in different grades. The spiral curriculum is one possibility for such a practice, not only because of its social advantages but also because of its potential to activate and utilize the readiness and range of knowledge of different types of learners. As Bruner’s (2006) hermeneutical theories highlight, this method can range from intuitive to more formal structures. The results of our research indicate that curriculum alignment using the spiral curriculum was not prevalent in the teaching practices described. However, one cannot realistically expect individual teachers to adapt the available teaching material for that purpose, in addition to all their other work (Little, 2001). Thus, it is necessary to investigate the ideas underlying the spiral curriculum and how they can be integrated into the level of core curricula. This would potentially inspire textbook authors and other actors to produce new teaching materials and tasks based on the precepts of the spiral curriculum.

There are some limitations of our study. Firstly, our sample size was small, and the teachers were from a very specific group, namely teachers in small rural schools at the primary school level. Based on our research, we cannot assume that their teaching practices are representative for multi-grade classes. However, the cross-cultural analysis (Lahelma and Gordon, 2010) of the data collected in two countries, in the differing cultural contexts of Austria and Finland, helps to increase our theoretical understanding of multi-grade teaching, and we have discovered similar patterns of multi-grade teaching practices across the two countries. Further studies utilizing different types of data—for example, a complementary video study—will be required to test the validity of the patterns. Moreover, there is a need for research that deepens the understanding of high-quality teaching practices in multi-grade classes that can be linked to empirical research findings on teaching such as clear structure, individual learning support, formative feedback, adaptive teaching, or professional classroom management (Hattie, 2009). Like Hahn and Berthold (2010), we suggest that another crucial indicator of high quality in multi-grade teaching relates to practices that utilize the heterogeneity of the multi-grade classes instead of neglecting or even ignoring it. Secondly, the study is restricted to the teachers’ perspectives. In the next step, it would be advisable to relate teaching practices to students’ learning in multi-grade classes. For example, the social advantages of peer tutoring for students seem to be obvious, but more knowledge is needed with regard to how these practices support learning and help students to construct knowledge together with their peers (see, e.g., Parr & Townsend, 2002). In addition, more research on different group formations is required in order to identify their “social pedagogic” potential and to investigate their role in educational settings (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003). For example, the flexible grouping strategies used in multi-age classes may be an effective way to meet the instructional needs of students and encourage their collaborative work (Hoffman, 2002).

Despite the shortcomings of our research, the results identify certain challenges in teacher education. Thus far, teachers have only been marginally—if at all—prepared for multi-grade teaching, a criticism that has arisen in other studies as well (Kline, White, & Lock, 2013;Raggl, 2011). We, therefore, suggest that teacher educators and researchers should become more aware of high-quality teaching practices in multi-grade teaching, such as the professional use of individual work plans, peer tutoring or spiral curriculum. Such practices demand optimal planning and instruction on the part of teachers and require that students receive individual feedback and learning support. We expect that good multi-grade teaching practices such as those suggested above would serve single-grade classes equally well, since every class is characterized by heterogeneity (e.g., with regard to age, gender, interests, aptitudes, and experiences). One task of teacher education should be to raise awareness of the potential and effectiveness of multi-grade teaching and to cultivate it in the curriculum (Mulryan-Kyne, 2007). This would not only enrich our understanding of good practices in multi-grade teaching, but would also help teachers to choose and develop teaching practices that contribute to and optimize students’ learning in their heterogeneous classes.

Jurnal 9

Judul :Confidence as motivational expressions of interest, utility, and other influences: Exploring under-confidence and over-confidence in science students at secondary school

Penulis : Richard Sheldrake

Tahun : 2016

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
An enhanced understanding of how students’ self-confidence is influenced benefits educational practice and motivational theories. For 1523 students in 12 secondary schools in England, science self-confidence was predicted by various factors: current self-confidence (self-concept) was most strongly predicted by received praise, current grades, and interest in science; self-confidence for future attainment (self-efficacy) was most strongly predicted by current grades and perceived utility of science.	tudents’ self-confidence does not necessarily correspond to their actual attainment, however: reviews have consistently found only modest associations between various indicators of each (Hansford and Hattie, 1982; Zell & Krizan, 2014) and further research has revealed and explored ‘confidence biases’ towards under-confidence or over-confidence. Under-confidence has generally been inferred or shown to be motivationally detrimental (Bandura, 1997; Bouffard & Narciss, 2011), which has important educational implications; under-confident students may not select subjects that they might otherwise succeed in and enjoy, for example, which may limit numbers of students who study non-compulsory subjects (Sheldrake, Mujtaba, & Reiss, 2014).
	Self-concept evolved from general psychological measures (such as self-esteem), rather than within a motivational theory, and was originally conceptualised as a person’s perceptions of their self, formed through experiences and interactions with and within the environment (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976).
	Students’ self-concept has been theorised to be influenced by numerous factors, including mastery experiences (such as gaining particular grades or results), self-comparisons over time, self-comparisons across subjects, comparisons with other students, causal attributions (factors attributed to success or failure, such as being due to the student or being due to outside forces), social persuasions, psychological centrality (how important an area is to the student), and potentially various other factors (Bong and Skaalvik, 2003). Extensive research has focused on particular areas, specifically peer-comparisons (e.g. Marsh and Parker, 1984 and Marsh et al., 2015a) and subject-comparisons (e.g. Marsh, 1986 and Marsh et al., 2015b).
	theoretical perspectives have also emerged that integrate both self-concept and self-efficacy. Following from social-cognitive theory, the expectancy-value model of motivated behavioural choices (Eccles, 2009; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) proposes that students interpret their own background and their context, including their own personal experiences, which forms and influences their beliefs about their own abilities (akin to self-concept) and their own identity; these beliefs then inform the students’ expectations of success (akin to self-efficacy) and subjective task values (‘subjective-values’ for brevity); these beliefs in turn then inform students’ actions and choices. Such factors are assumed to reciprocally influence one another; for example, students’ expectations of success may influence their subjective-values, and students’ subjective-values may influence their expectations of success.
	The various subjective-values, whether considered alone or within the expectancy-value model, have been increasingly applied within international science and mathematics research and have indeed been found to closely relate to students’ subject choices and attainment (Bøe and Henriksen, 2015; Bøe, Henriksen, Lyons, & Schreiner, 2011; Wang and Degol, 2013).

METODE PENELITIAN

Data collection occurred during the 2014/2015 academic year. Secondary schools within England were randomly sampled; schools were invited regardless of type, admissions policies, and other school features, except that schools supporting only those with special educational needs were excluded. The presented research covered 12 participating schools, of which seven were mixed-admissions comprehensive schools (admitting boys and girls, and not selecting students based on their achievement); mixed-admissions comprehensive schools form the majority (68%) of all secondary schools within England as of 2014 (Department of Education, 2015). Selective schools (admitting students based on their achievement) and boys-only and girls-only schools were also represented in the sample. The 12 schools covered a range of geographical locations and prior performance, although considered together (on average, from publicly-available achievement tables) 60% of their students were reported to have achieved five or more A*-C grades (including in both English and mathematics) or equivalents for GCSE level, compared to a national average of 47% as of 2014 (Department of Education, 2015). The presented research explored the views of 1523 students (685 in Year 9, 489 in Year 10, and 349 in Year 11; 635 girls and 871 boys) from these schools.

1. Measuring students’ experiences and beliefs

Students completed science-specific questionnaires. The questionnaire items were designed to be comparable with a broad range of international research, including TIMSS (Mullis, Martin, Ruddock, O’Sullivan, & Preuschoff, 2009). Most areas were measured through agreement scales with categories of (1) ‘strongly disagree’, (2) ‘disagree’, (3) ‘slightly disagree’, (4) ‘slightly agree’, (5) ‘agree’, and (6) ‘strongly agree’. All responses/items were subsequently coded (reversing category scores as necessary) so that high item/factor scores (e.g. 6) indicated a positive belief or experience (e.g. doing well, being interested, the absence of anxiety). When applicable, theorised factors were calculated through averages of the relevant items; single-factor structures (via confirmatory factor analysis via maximum likelihood estimation) and acceptable indicators of reliability (Cronbach’s α coefficients).

2. Students’ subject-level self-confidence was measured through expressions of:

Ø self-concept (agreement/disagreement with e.g. ‘I usually do well in science’, ‘I have always been good at science’);

Ø and self-efficacy (‘What grade do you think you will be able to get at GCSE (or equivalent) science?’ and ‘What grade do you think you would be able to get if you studied your best science subject at A-Level?’, with categories of (1) ‘E’ and ‘Lower’, (2) ‘D’, (3) ‘C’, (4) ‘B’, (5) ‘A’, and (6) ‘A*’).

This expression of self-efficacy has contextual relevance to students in England who may need to gain specific grades in order to study on particular courses or to enter university.

2. Theorised influences on self-confidence

Students’ reported experiences or beliefs were measured for various theorised sources, antecedents, or influences on their self-confidence:

Ø current grades (scaled to 1–6 as above for consistency), which can be formally conceptualised as ‘mastery experiences’;

Ø perceptions of attainment standards (‘What grade do you think people need to get in order to be “good” at science?’, scaled as before), which can be conceptualised as ‘mastery norms’;

Ø subject-comparisons (agreement/disagreement with ‘Science is harder for me than any other subject’, reverse-scored);

Ø peer-comparisons (‘Science is harder for me than for many of my classmates’, reverse-scored);

Ø positive vicarious experiences (‘When I see how another student solves a science problem, I can see myself solving the problem in the same way’);

Ø positive social persuasions (e.g. ‘My science teacher tells me I am good at science’), which can intuitively be called ‘praise’;

Ø and anxiety (e.g. ‘Science makes me confused and nervous’, reverse-scored).

These covered the four theorised antecedents to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) and covered the subject-comparisons and peer-comparisons (phrased as per TIMSS for comparability) that are assumed to be relevant to self-concept. Self-reported grades are generally considered sufficiently reliable indicators of actual grades although may still be (unavoidably) misreported to some extent (Kuncel, Credé, & Thomas, 2005); it was operationally unfeasible to collect grades in other ways (which would require non-anonymous questionnaires and schools to provide attainment lists, for example).

KESIMPULAN

Increasing the numbers of students studying science remains a priority for England and for other countries (The Royal Society, 2014). Considering students’ self-confidence offers a productive way to help ensure that students’ future choices are not unnecessarily constrained; in contrast to other potential influences on subject choices, such as school type, home resources, and students’ backgrounds (Regan & DeWitt, 2015), under-confidence or over-confidence (once recognised) can more feasibly be amended via interventions, teachers, or the students themselves.

On average, students’ science self-confidence was predicted by various factors: current self-confidence (self-concept, expressed as subjective beliefs of ‘doing well’ or ‘being good’ at science) was most strongly predicted by received praise, current grades, and interest in science; self-confidence for future attainment (self-efficacy, expressed as expected future grades) was most strongly predicted by current grades and perceived utility of science.

Students with different confidence biases were influenced in different ways. The self-confidence beliefs (both self-concept and self-efficacy) of under-confident students were predicted by their subject-comparisons (finding science easier or harder than other subjects), together with other factors, and not by their interest in science or their perceived utility of science; conversely, the self-confidence beliefs of over-confident students were predicted by their interest and utility of science, together with other factors, but not by their subject-comparisons. Similarly, lower personal value of science to the students’ identity predicted lower self-efficacy only for under-confident students.

Addressing under-confidence (or considering the area further) may be necessary before assuming that increasing interest in science can promote higher self-confidence for all students. Additionally, educators may also need to ensure that focusing on the utility associated with science does not lead to over-confidence, otherwise some students may potentially lack the attainment needed to pursue their wider goals or careers.

It may be beneficial to combine some classroom assessment with also asking students’ about their confidence in their answers, and so potentially increase students’ self-reflection and/or reveal under-confidence or over-confidence. Feedback could perhaps then be tailored so that students can reflect on their successful experiences, rather than on any other negative feelings. Reminders may also be useful regarding science as inclusive: attainment can be gained by all, regardless of whether someone considers themselves to be a ‘science person’ or not.

Jurnal 10

Judul: Formative interventions and practice-development: A methodological perspective on teacher rounds

Penulis: Viv Ellis^,, Cathy Gower, Kenny Frederick, Ann Childs

Tahun: 2015

MASALAH PENELITIAN	LANDASAN LITERATUR
In this paper, we examine Rounds as a research-based method of developing practice in school settings, a method that claims to integrate teacher professional development and school improvement. We see these research goals (teacher learning and organisational development) as linked and mutually generative (Corwin, 1975) but as goals that nonetheless raise some questions about the development of practice itself—in this case, the professional practice of teaching in schools.	Teacher Rounds (Del Prete, 2013) also draws on the medical metaphor and also involve observation, reflection and inquiry. Like Instructional Rounds, the work involves classroom observation by a group and the generation of low-inference observation data. Unlike Instructional Rounds, however, Teacher Rounds are not intended to be management-led and they do not usually involve teachers from more than one school; they are not usually part of a network or district-wide approach to system development. Teachers tend to come from the one school, to generate their own problems of practice and to be more genuinely collaborative in intent (peers working together) and intimate.
	Del Prete (2013) suggests that Teacher Rounds can put teaching and learning at the centre of the life of the school and can unpack the complexities of these processes by attempting to get greater insight, for example by trying to understand the multiple perspectives of the students in the observed lessons.
	Finnish interventionist-researcher Yrjo Engestro¨m has developed a methodology of formative intervention known as DWR (Engestro¨m, 2007) based on the Vygotskian principle of ‘dual stimulation’ (Vygotsky, 1974), sometimes known as the ‘double stimulation strategy’ or the ‘instrumental method’ (Ellis, 2010). From this perspective, Engestro¨m notes that an intervention is meant to be disruptive but intended to be developmental in relation to the practice in which the intervention takes place. An intervention such as DWR is meant to be deliberate, systematic and to some extent halt or slow down business-as-usual in order for the practice to be examined closely by the practitioners and a new critical consciousness among practitioners stimulated. The triangular representation of the human activity system takes centre stage in DWR interventions (see Fig. 1).
	DWR understands practice as an anthropologist might: it is a cultural phenomenon, one that has developed historically, and is inevitably collective in that we only know if we are engaged in a practice with reference to other practitioners of that practice (cf. Lampert, 2009).
	Del Prete (2013) suggests that the purposes of Teacher Rounds are ‘to support teachers in understanding student learning and in developing their practice individually and collectively’ (p. 1). A four-part protocol is described: 1. ‘Preparing the Round Sheet’—providing the essential context in written form; identifying the problem of practice posed by the host teacher focused on student learning; then, the ‘Round Inquiry’ or guiding questions; 2. ‘The Preround Orientation’—a discussion of the Round Sheet with all participants to ensure that the context, the problem of practice and the guiding questions are understood; 3. ‘The Round’—during which participants gather data on the lesson being taught by the host teacher, focusing on their problem of practice and guiding questions; the data being generated here is of the kind sometimes called ‘low inference’ (the point being to discourage participants from rushing to interpretation and judgement); 4. ‘The Postround reflection’—in which observation notes are shared descriptively with reference to the Rounds question; followed by speculations and tentative hypoptheses of the ‘what if’ kind; followed by a section summing up what has been discovered through the Rounds process and a reflection on the process itself. (Del Prete, 2013, pp. 141–144).
	As Olson (2004) has pointed out: The reputation of educational research is tarnished less by the lack of replicable results than by the lack of any deeper theory that would explain why the thousands of experiments that make up the literature of the field appear to have yielded so little. (p. 25)

METODE PENELITIAN

1. A methodological perspective

The points of contact between Rounds and CHAT-informed approaches to practice-development are interesting, we believe, and will help us to structure the methodological discussion in this article. We use the term methodological to signal our interest in the common stance of Rounds and CHAT-informed approaches to practice-development: a commitment to research (defined in its most basic sense as the generation of new knowledge through systematic enquiry) and a commitment to participatory ways of knowing in which the role of any outside ‘researcher’ is not to lend the process authority or objectivity. The focus in Rounds of gathering data through observation for joint analysis, the importance of conversation and open communication in that analysis, the future-orientation to the work of the Rounds activity and the underlying commitment to seeing theory and practice as a whole rather than as separate, hierarchically-ordered entities—all these align easily with the general CHAT approach, as we will show in this paper, and they both might therefore be understood as interesting forms of specifically educational research.

That said, we do think there are important differences that might be worthy of discussion and help to develop the Rounds approach as an enabling intervention and to understand the terms of the relationship between practice-development and research more generally. We will not be arguing that Rounds needs to learn from CHAT, however. CHAT has its own learning to do. But there are three areas in which we think further clarification and elaboration of the methodology of Rounds would be useful. The first is the relationship between individual and collective practice; this is a perennial concern for CHAT also.

This question addresses how developing the work – the teaching – of an individual teacher through systematic enquiry can have wider impact on their colleagues, their department, their school. Teachers are not only a collection of individual workers behind closed classroom doors. They are part of an organisation and also part of a field or practice (such as highschool Mathematics teaching) with its own historically-developed norms, values and bodies of knowledge. What is the possible relationship between individual practice-development and collective or organisational practice development? And how do we know? The second methodological question addresses the role of theory in the process of Rounds; the usefulness (or otherwise) of abstract, propositional knowledge, and how this might or might not take the development of a practice forward. CHAT doesn’t argue that abstract concepts alone will improve practice. CHAT does, though, as did Vygotsky (1974), argue that by bringing people’s own ideas into contact with some ‘scientific’ (academic) ideas, you can then develop mature concepts, a hybrid of abstract and spontaneous concepts that help people to do some work in the world. Our view is that, perhapsparadoxically, CHAT over-relies on and over-emphasises theory (see Ellis, 2011); it claims that it is through the insertion of the theory (most commonly associated with the triangular representation of the activity system) that people’s perceptions are changed and new futures are possible. We are not sure it is as simple as that always. As far as Rounds are concerned, however, in what ways does theory figure in helping participants work out answers to their own questions? Or doesn’t it? And is there an underlying theory of change driving Rounds that needs to be made more explicit?

The third question concerns the meaning of collaboration in the Rounds approach. The word ‘collaboration’, like the word ‘community’, is often assumed to be a good thing and always and inevitably useful in professional development and school improvement. What do we mean by collaboration, however, and how might it be useful, if it is? What kinds of collaboration mark out the Rounds approach as particularly useful or effective in achieving the twin goals of teacher learning and organisational development? We do not propose to ‘answer’ these questions in a definitive sense in the course of the article

but they will be driving our examination of the Rounds approach from a methodological perspective.

2. Formative interventions: Developing practice through research

The claim for DWR as a methodology of formative intervention methodology is that it enables participants to do more than simply work on improving their own performance either through action research methods or through participation in a researcher-led design experiment. DWR claims to develop critical understanding among participants of how their existing ractices and discourses have been shaped culturally and historically so that they might be worked on and developed at the level of the social system. The aim is the development of what Engestro¨m calls ‘critical design agency’ among the practitioners (Engestro¨m, 2007). This critical consciousness, it is claimed, is stimulated by the power of the conceptual tools of activity theory (represented by the triangular image of the activity system) in helping participants analyse how the object of their collective activity is constructed, how rules and a division of labour have emerged historically within a community of practitioners, and how cultural tools are appropriated by members of that community—and how these might be changed for the better. In brief, the process can be summarised as follows.

A data-driven, developmental workshop (a ‘Change Laboratory’) of participating practitioners is facilitated by one or more ‘researcher-interventionists’. Notes are taken of the group’s interactions (and sometimes a video recording of the whole event). The researcher introduces evidence of current practices and discourses using one of three displays known as the ‘mirror’.

3. Teacher Rounds as a formative intervention

Next, in turning to Rounds, we need to be clear that Rounds does not identify itself primarily as a research methodology per se but rather as a research-based means of practice development (an activity that encompasses overlapping terms such as professional development and school improvement). It does not, as DWR does, see itself as simultaneously developing practice and theory. It may align with an overall approach that could be described as ‘practitioner research’ (in its emphasis on the systematic collection of observational data, for example) but it is primarily offered as a tool for developing practice. Nonetheless, we do wish to explore Rounds in terms of methodology and to do so in ways that might go beyond regarding research on Rounds as evaluation of its outcomes or as case studies of Rounds in action. To do so, we have selected one of the influential versions of Rounds—known as Teacher Rounds, derived from the work of Del Prete (2013). Del Prete (2013) suggests that the purposes of Teacher Rounds are ‘to support teachers in understanding student learning and in developing their practice individually and collectively’ (p. 1). A four-part protocol is described:

1. ‘Preparing the Round Sheet’—providing the essential context in written form; identifying the problem of practice posed by

the host teacher focused on student learning; then, the ‘Round Inquiry’ or guiding questions;

2. ‘The Preround Orientation’—a discussion of the Round Sheet with all participants to ensure that the context, the problem of practice and the guiding questions are understood;

3. ‘The Round’—during which participants gather data on the lesson being taught by the host teacher, focusing on their problem of practice and guiding questions; the data being generated here is of the kind sometimes called ‘low inference’ (the point being to discourage participants from rushing to interpretation and judgement);

4. ‘The Postround reflection’—in which observation notes are shared descriptively with reference to the Rounds question; followed by speculations and tentative hypoptheses of the ‘what if’ kind; followed by a section summing up what has been discovered through the Rounds process and a reflection on the process itself. (Del Prete, 2013, pp. 141–144).

KESIMPULAN

In this article, we have explored the potential of Rounds as a type of research-based formative intervention from a methodological perspective and in a comparison with the cultural-historical tradition of DWR. As such, we believe the article is significant in offering both a specific, methodological analysis of Rounds and an exploration of key methodological questions underlying types of research (such as DWR) that claim the potential to develop practice. We have discussed Rounds as an approach to identifying, recognising and reconfiguring problems of practice in the social world of classrooms, an approach built on a commitment to creating a supportive professional environment and encouraging genuine collaboration among teachers through systematic enquiry. Rounds have been seen to work by drawing groups of teachers together in such a way that their professional creativity is stimulated and new ideas produced collectively to address real problems (Del Prete, 2013 and Ellis, 2013). We have also identified three lines of interest from a methodological standpoint: first, the tension between the improvement of individual teacher performance and the wider collective development of the practice of teaching within the context of school improvement; second, the role or otherwise of theory or abstract, externally-derived ideas in moving a practice forward through research; the meaning of collaboration (let alone collaborative research) within often hierarchical organisations such as schools that are also subject to strong lines of vertical accountability. We do not want to appear to be arguing for the unique properties of CHAT as a theory of learning, change and development. CHAT has its own problems, perhaps such as an ironic over-reliance on theory and its unique mediating potential (often signalled in the literature by a plethora of triangles). It may be, however, that CHAT can inform the Rounds approach to teacher development and school improvement with some useful responses to questions about the role of theory, the individual/collective relationship and the meaning of collaboration in stimulating change and developing practice.

Berbagi Ilmu

Friday, December 23, 2016

sistem penunjang keputusan

Analisis Jurnal

Judul : Multi-grade teaching practices in Austrian and Finnish primary schools

Judul :Confidence as motivational expressions of interest, utility, and other influences: Exploring under-confidence and over-confidence in science students at secondary school

1. Measuring students’ experiences and beliefs

2. Theorised influences on self-confidence

Judul: Formative interventions and practice-development: A methodological perspective on teacher rounds