Nama : Riana
Suherman
Nim : 30814139
Matkul : Metodologi
Penelitian (Review Analisis)
Jurnal 1
Judul :
Pengembangan Multimedia Dalam Pembelajaran Kosakata Bahasa Inggris di SD
Penulis : I Nyoman
Mardika
Tahun : 2016
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Masalah Penelitian
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Landasan Literatur
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Teknik pengajaran
bahasa inggris yang masih konvensional seperti metode ceramah secara klasikal
dan masih berpusat pada buku sebagai media pendukung pengajaran sehingga
kurang memenuhi prinsip-prinsip. Proses belajar mengajar sebaiknya dilandasi
dengan prinsip-prinsip: berpusat pada siswa, mengembangkan kreativitas siswa, menciptakan kondisi menyenangkan dan menantang, mengembangkan beragam kemampuan yang bermuatan nilai, menyediakan pengalaman belajar yang beragam, dan belajar melalui berbuat. |
multimedia
didefinisikan sebagai penyampaian informasi secara interaktif dan
terintegrasi yang mencakup teks, gambar, suara, video atau animasi (Hackbarth
1996; Philips, 1997).
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multimedia
interaktif memiliki potensi untuk menciptakan suatu lingkungan multisensori
yang mendukung cara belajar tertentu serta dapat mengakomodasi cara belajar
yang berbeda-beda. (Philips (1997:12)
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Luther, 1994
(Ariesto Hadi Sutopo, 2003: 32-48) mengungkapkan enam tahap pengembangan
multimedia pembelajaran yaitu concept, design, material collecting, assembly,
testing and distribution.
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Pengembangan media
meliputi enam langkah, yaitu: menganalisis kebutuhan dan karakteristik siswa,
merumuskan tujuan instruksional, merumuskan materi secara terperinci, mengembangkan
alat pengukur keberhasilan, menulis naskah media, dan mengadakan test dan
revisi. (Arief S. Sadiman, et al. 2016:100)
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Pembelajaran
kosakata dengan multimedia berpusat pada kondisi noticing, retrieval, dan
generative use. (1) Noticing yaitu bentuk pembelajaran dengan menggunakan
tulisan yang diberi warna, disorot, dan diberi cahaya. (2) Retrieval yaitu
pembelajaran yang dilakukan dengan penundaan atau pemunculan petunjuk secara
berangsur-angsur. (3) Generative Use yaitu pembelajaran yang dilakukan dengan
melengkapi koskata dalam berbagai konteks dan bentuk seperti gambar, tulisan,
dan suara. (Nation 2001:109)
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Constantinescu
(2007: 4) menyebutkan empat prinsip mengajar dalam pembelajaran bahasa
berbantuan komputer untuk pengembangan kosakata yaitu (1) guru harus
memperhatikan ketersediaan alat-alat mengajar. (2) guru harus memberi
penjelasan dalam bentuk teks dengan menggunakan multimedia. (3) guru harus
mengetahui jenis-jenis materi online dalam pembelajaran bahasa inggris karena
tidak semua materi tersebut dapat digunakan di dalam kelas. (4) guru harus
menggunakan metode yang sesuai dan memanfaatkan multimedia dengan baik.
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Metode Penelitian
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Dalam penelitian ini, model yang menjadi
acuan adalah model penelitian
pengembangan Borg & Gall (2003: 775),
model pengembangan desain pembelajaran
Dick, Carey & Carey (2005: 1), dan pengembangan
produk model Luther, 1994
(Ariesto Hadi Sutopo, 2003: 32). Ketiga
model pengembangan tersebut diadaptasi sehingga menghasilkan sebuah model
pengembangan yang lebih sederhana, yang
dijadikan sebagai landasan dalam penelitian. Adapun
konsepnya menjadi seperti ini:
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Penelitian ini melalui enam tahap berikut:
1.
Tahap analisis kebutuhan. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk
mengumpulkan informasi yang relevan dengan perlunya pengembangan multimedia
pembelajaran kosakata bahasa Inggris kelas V SD.
2.
Tahap desain pembelajaran. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk
mengembangkan desain pembelajaran hingga menghasilkan silabus sebagai dasar
untuk mengembangkan multimedia pembelajaran.
3.
Tahap produksi/pengembangan multimedia. Tahap ini
bertujuan untuk menghasilkan produk awal, dan selanjutnya dites atau
dijalankan dalam komputer untuk memastikan apakah hasilnya sesuai dengan yang
diinginkan atau tidak.
4.
Tahap validasi ahli. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk
mengetahui kelayakan produk yang dikembangkan.
5.
Melakukan revisi. Tahap ini bertujuan untuk
meningkatkan kualitas produk berdasarkan saran revisi ahli materi dan ahli
media.
6.
Melakukan uji coba produk. Tahap ini dilakukan untuk
mengetahui daya tarik multimedia yang dikembangkan bagi siswa dan untuk
memperoleh skor hasil pre-test dan post-test.
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Instrumen pengumpulan data yang digunakan
adalah angket, pedoman observasi, dan soal pre-test dan post-test.
Angket digunakan untuk memperoleh data yang berkaitan dengan kualitas
kelayakan materi dan kualitas kelayakan media. Pedoman observasi digunakan
sebagai panduan dalam melakukan observasi terhadap sikap siswa selama proses
uji coba untuk mengetahui daya tarik produk bagi siswa. Soal pre-test dan
post-test digunakan untuk mengetahui ketuntasan belajar siswa setelah
menggunakan produk multimedia yang dikembangkan.
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NO
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KESIMPULAN
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1
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pengembangan multimedia dalam pembelajaran
kosakata bahasa Inggris kelas V SD telah dilakukan melalui enam tahap, yaitu:
1.
melakukan analisis kebutuhan,
2.
mengembangkan desain pembelajaran,
3.
mengembangkan
produk multimedia pembelajaran,
4.
melakukan validasi ahli,
5.
melakukan revisi, dan
6.
melakukan uji coba.
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2
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ditinjau dari aspek isi dan aspek
pembelajaran, kualitas multimedia yang dikembangkan dinilai “baik” oleh ahli
materi. Kriteria “baik” ini diketahui melalui tabel konversi nilai skala 5.
Rata -rata skor penilaian ahli materi pada aspek isi adalah 3,75 dan
rata-rata skor penilaian ahli materi pada aspek pembelajaran adalah 3,71.
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3
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ditinjau dari aspek tampilan dan aspek
pemrograman, kualitas multimedia pembelajaran yang dikembangkan dinilai
“baik” oleh ahli media. Ahli media memberi penilaian pada aspek tampilan
dengan rata-rata skor sebesar 3,87 dan aspek pemrograman dengan rata-rata
skor sebesar 3,75.
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4
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berdasarkan hasil observasi, disimpulkan
bahwa daya tarik produk “sangat menarik”, karena lebih dari setengah jumlah
siswa menyatakan bahwa produk “sangat menarik”. Kriteria daya tarik ini
diketahui melalui tabel pedoman konversi data kuantitatif ke data kualitatif
untuk daya tarik media yang dikembangkan
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5
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penggunaan multimedia mempunyai dampak
positif terhadap ketuntasan belajar siswa. Dari dua puluh siswa yang telah
mengikuti uji coba kelompok besar terdapat satu siswa yang tidak tuntas
belajar kosakata bahasa Inggris dan 19 siswa (95%) yang tuntas belajar dengan
rata-rata skor 16,25 atau memperoleh nilai 81,25 dari nilai maksimal 100.
Ketuntasan belajar ini tergolong “sangat baik”.
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Jurnal 2
Judul : Pengembangan Multimedia
Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Untuk Pembelajaran Teks Recount di MTsN II
Yogyakarta
Penulis :
Muhammad Ahmad Jumasa, Herman Dwi Surjono
Tahun :
2016
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MASALAH
PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN TEORI
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Mempelajari bahasa Inggris sangatlah
penting karena bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa global yang digunakan secara
internasional. Oleh karena itu dalam mempelajari bahasa Inggris, pembelajaran
harus secara efektif dilakukan. Adapun tujuan dalam penelitian ini antara
lain:
(1) menghasilkan
produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount,
(2) mengetahui kelayakan produk multimedia pembelajaran
bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount, dan
(3) mengetahui keefektifan produk multimedia
pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount untuk
siswa kelas VIII MTsN II Yogyakarta.
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Alat bantu visual seperti gambar memiliki manfaat yaitu
mampu menyam-paikan makna dan mampu menarik per-hatian siswa (Harmer, 2007,
pp. 178-179).
Alat bantu audio mampu meningkatkan kemampuan mendengar
(Heinick, et.al, 1996, p. 178).
Alat bantu audio visual dapat meningkatkan perhatian
dan motivasi siswa karena melalui alat bantu ini kedua mata dan telinga siswa
menjadi aktif (Parel dan Jain, 2008, p. 64).
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Menurut Harmer (2007, p. 319), musik bermanfaat untuk
menghibur dan dapat menghubung-kan dengan sangat baik lingkungan yang santai
dan lingkungan pembelajaran di dalam kelas.
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Multimedia diharapkan menjadi alat bantu mengajar yang
akan membuat pembelajaran efektif karena multimedia merupakan gabungan
elemen-elemen visu-al, audio, dan audio visual; seperti gambar, teks, suara,
animasi, dan video. Vaughan (2011, p 1) mengemukakan bahwa multi-media
merupakan kombinasi dari teks, gambar, suara, animasi, dan video yang
disampaikan melalui peranti komputer, elektronik, atau alat hasil rekayasa
digital lainnya.
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Parel dan Jain (2008, pp. 57-58) menyebut-kan ada tiga
macam alat bantu mengajar, yaitu alat bantu visual, audio dan audio visual.
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Alat-alat bantu mengajar tersebut dapat dipilih oleh
guru agar sesuai dengan kemampuan berbahasa (membaca, mendengar, berbicara,
menulis) yang akan di-ajarkan. Alat bantu visual seperti gambar memiliki
manfaat yaitu mampu menyam-paikan makna dan mampu menarik perhatian siswa
(Harmer, 2007, pp. 178-179).
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METODOLOG
PENELITAN
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Penelitian yang dilakukan termasuk dalam penelitian
pengembangan (Research and Development). Hasil dari penelitian ini
berupa produk multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount
untuk siswa kelas VIII di MTsN II Yogyakarta yang dibuat dengan
meng-gunakan program Adobe Flash CS5 dan program pendukung lain.
Model pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran dalam
penelitian ini meng-acu pada Alessi dan Trollip (2001, p. 410). Model
pengembangan dari Allessi dan Trollip mencakup tiga langkah yang terdiri dari
perencanaan, desain, dan pengembangan. Evaluasi pada model pengembangan
multimedia pembelajaran ini berlangsung dalam tiga tahap, yaitu uji Alpha (Alpha
Testing), uji Beta (Beta Testing), dan validasi program.
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Tempat penelitian adalah di MTsN II Yogyakarta.
Penelitian dimulai pada tanggal 24 November 2014 hingga 20 Ja-nuari 2015.
Subjek uji coba penelitian adalah siswa MTsN II Yogyakarta kelas VIII C dan
G. Jumlah subjek uji coba yaitu masing-masing siswa dalam 1 kelas. Rinciannya
adalah kelas VIII C berjumlah 33 siswa untuk kegiatan uji beta (beta
testing) dan kelas VIII G berjumlah 34 siswa untuk kegiatan validasi
program (pretest, uji coba produk, dan posttest).
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Langkah-langkah pada penelitian ini meliputi: tahap
perencanaan, desain, dan pengembangan. Tahap perencanaan yaitu:
mengidentifikasi bidang/ruang lingkup materi teks recount, mengidentifikasi
karakteristik siswa, mengidentifikasi kebutuhan teknis, mengumpulkan dan
menentukan sumber-sumber, dan melakukan diskusi ide awal. Tahap desain yaitu:
membuat flowchart, membuat storyboard, dan menyiapkan skrip.
Tahap pengembangan meliputi: menyiapkan teks, warna, gambar, audio dan video,
menggabungkan bagian-bagian dalam program Adobe Flash CS 5, melakukan
evaluasi dengan uji Alpha (Alpha Testing), melakukan evaluasi
dengan uji Beta (Beta Testing), menghasilkan produk akhir, dan
validasi program.
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Jenis data dalam penelitian ini adalah
jenis data kuantitatif yang diperoleh dari angket yang telah diberikan kepada
ahli media, ahli materi, dan siswa kelas VIII MTsN. Data kuantitatif tersebut
dikon-versikan menjadi data kualitatif. Data yang digali dalam penelitian ini
adalah sebagai berikut. Pertama adalah ketepatan materi untuk ketercapaian
kompetensi pembel-ajaran di MTsN II Yogyakarta. Aspek yang dikaji adalah
aspek pembelajaran dan aspek isi. Data diperoleh dengan kuisoner dari ahli
materi. Kedua adalah ketepatan rancangan software multimedia
pembelajaran. Aspek yang dikaji adalah aspek tampilan dan aspek pemrograman.
Data diperoleh de-ngan kuisoner dari ahli media. Ketiga ada-lah aspek layak
dari multimedia pembel-ajaran. Data diperoleh dengan kuisoner dari siswa.
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Pengumpulan data selama proses pengembangan multimedia pembelajaran
bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount menggunakan teknik
observasi, wawancara, angket dan tes. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam
mengumpulkan data berupa instrumen penilaian untuk menilai produk yang telah
dikembangkan dari aspek instruksional, aspek isi, aspek tampilan, aspek
pemrograman. Untuk mengetahui penilaian dari siswa secara mendalam terhadap
produk multimedia pembelajaran yang dikembangkan, maka peneliti menggunakan
instrumen penilaian dari aspek pembelajaran, aspek materi, dan aspek
tampilan. Sebelum instrumen penilaian diberikan, instrumen tersebut
divalidasi terlebih dahulu oleh validator ahli.
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Data hasil penelitian ini berupa tanggapan ahli materi,
ahli media, dan siswa tentang kualitas produk yang telah dikembangkan yang ditinjau
dari aspek pembelajaran, aspek materi, dan aspek media. Data berupa komentar,
saran revisi, dan hasil pengamatan peneliti selama proses ujicoba dianalisis
secara deskriptif kualitatif, dan disimpulkan sebagai masukan untuk
memperbaiki atau merevisi produk yang telah dikembangkan. Sedangkan data
berupa skor tanggapan ahli materi, ahli media, dan siswa yang diperoleh dari
kuesioner, dianalisis secara deskriptif kuantitatif dengan menggunakan teknik
kategorisasi yang mengacu pada acuan rumus dari Sukardjo dan Sari (2008, pp.
82-86).
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No
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KESIMPULAN
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1
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Hasil penelitian dan pengembang-an program
multimedia pembelajaran bahasa Inggris untuk pembelajaran teks recount diperoleh
hasil berupa karakteristik produk yang dihasilkan mencakup petun-juk, Standar
Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar (SK dan KD), uraian materi, rang-kuman, kuis,
dan evaluasi. Petunjuk terdiri dari petunjuk belajar dan petunjuk prog-ram.
Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar (SK dan KD) meliputi Standar
Kompetensi, Kompetensi Dasar, dan Indi-kator. Uraian materi berisi video
penje-lasan, dan bentuk-bentuk teks recount. Rangkuman merupakan
sekilas materi yang penting untuk dipahami siswa. Kuis berbentuk drag and
drop items dan multiple-choice items. Evaluasi yang disajikan
ber-bentuk multiple-choice items.
Produk yang dikembangkan layak digunakan
sebagai salah satu sumber bel-ajar pelengkap ditinjau dari penilaian ahli
materi I pada aspek pembelajaran yang memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,62 dengan
kategori Sangat Baik dan aspek isi yang memperoleh nilai rata-rata
4,72 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Penilaian ahli materi II pada aspek
pembelajaran mendapatkan nilai rata-rata 4,18 dengan kategori Sangat Baik dan
aspek isi memperoleh nilai rata- rata 4,54 dengan kategori Sangat Baik.
Penilaian ahli media I pada aspek tampilan media memperoleh nilai rata-rata
4,07 de-ngan kategori Baik dan aspek pemrogram-an memperoleh nilai
rata-rata 4,50 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Penilaian ahli media II
pada aspek tampilan media mendapatkan nilai rata-rata 4,00 dengan kategori Baik
dan aspek pemrograman memperoleh nilai rata-rata 4,60 dengan kategori Sangat
Baik.Hasil uji beta (beta testing) memperoleh nilai
rata-rata 4,19 dengan kategori Sangat Baik. Hasil uji coba produk
memperoleh nilai rata-rata 3,92 dengan kategori Baik. Peningkatan skor
gain (gain score) rata-rata seluruh siswa dari hasil pretest dan
posttest sebesar 0,90 (N-gain ≥ 0,7). Hal ini berarti
keefektifan produk yang dikembangkan termasuk kategori tinggi.
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2
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Pemanfaatan program multimedia pembelajaran
bahasa Inggris untuk pem-belajaran teks recount efektif hasilnya
apa-bila guru menggunakannya dengan cara yang tepat.
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Jurnal 3
Judul : Model Pengembangan Pembelajaran
Bahasa Inggris Berbasis ICT (Information and Communication Technology) dalam
Meningkatkan Prestasi Belajar Siswa SMA
Penulis :
Sariakin
Tahun :
2016
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MASALAH
PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN
LITERATUR
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Pesatnya komunikasi dan interaksi global telah menempatkan
bahasa Inggris sebagai salah satu media yang mutlak kebutuhannya. Tanpa
kemampuan berbahasa Inggris yang memadai, para lulusan SMA akan menghadapi
banyak masalah dalam menjalin interaksi global tersebut.
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Pengertian ICT (Information and Communication
Technology) atau yang lebih dikenal dengan TIK (teknologi informasi dan
komunikasi) diungkapkan oleh beberapa orang ahli (Abdul Kadir, 2003:13)
antara lain dalam kamus Oxford dituliskan bahwa teknologi informasi dan
komunikasi adalah studi atau penggunaan peralatan elektronika terutama
komputer untuk menyimpan, menganalisis dan mendistribusikan informasi apa
saja, termasuk kata-kata, bilangan dan gambar.
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Pengajaran mereka masih terpaku pada materi dari buku
pelajaran tanpa peduli terhadap pikiran, perasaan, dan kemajuan belajar
siswanya. Selama proses pembelajaran, guru bahasa Inggris belum memberdayakan
seluruh potensi dirinya sehingga sebagian besar siswa belum mampu mencapai
kompetensi individu yang diperlukan untuk mengikuti pelajaran bahasa Inggris
lanjutan. Sebagian besar siswa belum belajar sampai pada tingkat komunikasi
dalam menggunakan bahasa Inggris secara maksimal. Siswa baru mampu
mempelajari, membaca, menghafal kosa kata, menulis, dan mengingat
kaidah-kaidah bahasa Inggris. Demikian pula gagasan inovatif pada tingkat
ingatan, mereka belum dapat menggunakan dan menerapkan bahasa Inggris secara
efektif dalam berkomunikasi sehari-hari yang kontekstual dengan menggunakan
bahasa Inggris baik secara lisan maupun secara tulisan.
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Prinsip umum penggunaan teknologi, dalam hal ini ICT
adalah sebagai berikut: (1) Efektif dan Efisien. Penggunaan ICT harus
memperhatikan manfaat dari teknologi ini dalam hal mengefektifkan belajar,
meliputi pemerolehan ilmu, kemudahan dan keterjangkauan baik waktu maupun biaya.
(2) Optimal. dengan menggunakan ICT, paling tidak pembelajaran menjadi
bernilai "lebih" daripada tanpa menggunakannya. Nilai lebih yang
diberikan ICT adalah keluasan cakupan, kekinian (up to date), kemodernan, dan
keterbukaan .(3) Menarik artinya dalam prinsip ini, pembelajaran dikelas akan
lebih menarik dan memancing keingintahuan yang lebih. (4) Merangsang daya
kreatifitas berpikir pelajar.
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METODE PENELITIAN
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Metode yang dilakukan dalam
penelitian ini adalah ICT. Dalam
penelitian ini penulis menggambarkan secara deskriptif dan holistik tentang
pembelajaran bahasa Inggris berbasis ICT untuk meningkatkan prestasi siswa
menengah atas (SMA) dalam bahasa Inggris secara menyeluruh. Sebuah model
pembelajaran yang berbasis ICT dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik apabila segala
perangkatnya dapat disiapkan dengan baik pula. Salah satu perangkat yang
tidak dapat dihindari adalah kemampuan pengajar mengenal berbagai program
yang berkenaan dengan teknologi yang digunakan. Selain itu, peranti keras dan
peranti lunak tersedia sehingga pembelajarannya dapat dilaksanakan secara
efektif dan efisien.
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Model pembelajaran yang dilakukannya secara offline dan
online dengan jumlah kegiatan online sebanyak 10 pertemuan.
Pertemuan online mempergunakan mailing list, fasilitas yang
disediakan oleh yahoo groups dengan dimoderatori oleh guru.
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Langkah-langkah pembelajarannya
dilaksanakan sebagai berikut.
1) Siswa
ditugasi untuk menjelajahi internet dan berbagai situs yang tersedia sebanyak
mungkin untuk mencari, menemukan, dan mengunduh artikel berita dan materi
pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan topik dan tugas yang diberikan.
2) Siswa membuat
draf tulisan awal pada pertemuan offline lalu mengirimkannya ke milis
sehingga semua anggota milis dapat membaca tulisan masing-masing.
3) Untuk setiap tugas, siswa diminta
memberikan komentar terhadap tulisan empat siswa lain.
4) siswa diminta
memperbaiki tulisan awal dan membahas tulisan yang telah direvisi pada
pertemuan offline.
5) siswa
mengirimkan esai ke milis Writing IV dan memberikan komentar terhadap
komentar yang mereka terima dari siswa lain.
6) siswa mendiskusikan komentar pada
pertemuan offline.
7) siswa diminta untuk membuat
tulisan akhir.
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KESIMPULAN
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Pemanfaatan ICT untuk pembelajaran keterampilan
berbahasa tidak hanya tertuju pada kegiatan belajar-mengajar, tetapi juga
dapat dilakukan untuk menghasilkan media pembelajaran. Teknologi informasi
dan komunikasi dapat dimanfaatkan dalam segala bidang kehidupan, termasuk
bidang pendidikan bahasa Inggris. Melalui produknya manusia mampu mengubah
perilaku hidupnya dan pola berpikirnya secara positif sehingga tercipta
berbagai perilaku dan pola berpikir, misalnya, perilaku tidak mau tertinggal,
ingin cepat, toleran, berpikir kritis, dan kreatif. Oleh sebab itu,
penggunaan teknologi informasi yang tepat merupakan suatu keterampilan yang
sangat diperlukan dalam mengembangkan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris para siswa
khususnya siswa SMA pada saat ini.
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JURNAL 4
Judul : Pembuatan
Aplikasi Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Pada Handphone Dengan J2ME
Penulis : Yusni
Nyura
Tahun : 2010
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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Perkembangan
bahasa inggris yang semakin meluas sehingga bahasa inggris seolah-olah
menjadi bahasa kedua setelah bahasa indonesia. Hal tersebut tidak bisa
dipungkiri lagi karena pentingnya penggunaan bahasa inggris dalam segala
bidang seperti percakapan, pendidikan, perdagangan, dan lain-lain.
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Java
adalah bahasa pemrograman Object-Oriented dengan unsur-unsur seperti bahasa
C++ dan bahasa-bahasa lainnya yang memiliki libraries yang cocok untuk
lingkungan internet. Java dapat melakukan banyak hal dalam melakukan
pemrograman, seperti membuat animasi halaman web, pemrograman java untuk
ponsel dan aplikasi interaktif. java juga dapat digunakan untuk handphone,
internet, dan lain-lain
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Karakteristik-karakteristik Java
a. Sederhana
Bahasa pemrograman Java menggunakan sintaks
yang mirip dengan bahasa C++ namun sintaks pada Java telah banyak diperbaiki,
terutama
dengan menghilangkan pointer yang rumit dan
multiple inheritance. Java juga menggunakan automatic memory allocation dan
garbage collection.
b. Berorientasi Objek
Java merupakan bahasa pemrograman
berorientasi objek yang memungkinkan program untuk dibuat secara modular dan
digunakan kembali.
c. Terdistribusi
Java dibuat untuk memudahkan distribusi
aplikasi dengan adanya networking libraries yang terintegrasi dalam Java.
d. Interpreted
Program Java dijalankan menggunakan program
Interpreter, yaitu Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Hal ini menyebabkan source
code Java yang telah
dikompilasi menjadi bytecodes dapat
dijalankan pada berbagai platform.
e. Robust
Java mempunyai reliabilitas yang tinggi.
Kompiler pada Java mempunyai kemampuan mendeteksi error yang lebih baik
dibandingkan bahasa
pemrograman yang lain. Java mempunyai
Runtime Exception Handling untuk membantu mengatasi error pada pemrograman.
f. Secure
Sebagai bahasa pemrograman aplikasi
internet dan terdistribusi, Java memiliki beberapa mekanisme keamanan untuk
menjaga agar aplikasi tidak digunakan untuk merusak sistem komputer yang
menjalankan aplikasi tersebut.
g. Architecture Neutral
Program Java tidak bergantung pada platform
dimana program akan dijalankan. Cukup dibuat satu program yang dapat
dijalankan pada berbagai platform dengan Java Virtual Machine.
h. Portable
Source code maupun program Java dapat
dengan mudah dibawa ke berbagai platform berbeda tanpa harus dikompilasi
ulang.
i. Performance
Kinerja Java sering kali dikatakan kurang,
namun kinerja Java dapat ditingkatkan menggunakan compiler Java lain seperti
buatan Inprise,
Microsoft maupun Symantec yang menggunakan Just
In Time Compilers (JIT).
j. Multithreaded
Java dapat membuat suatu program yang mampu
melakukan beberapa pekerjaan secara sekaligus dan simultan.
k. Dynamic
Java dapat didesain untuk dapat dijalankan
pada lingkungan yang dinamis. Perubahan suatu class dengan menambahkan
properties ataupun metode dapat dilakukan tanpa menggangu program yang menggunakan
class tersebut.
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MIDlet adalah aplikasi yang ditulis untuk
MIDP. Aplikasi MIDlet adalah bagian dari kelas javax.microedition.midlet.MIDlet
yang didefinisikan pada MIDP. MIDlet berupa kelas abstrak yang merupakan sub
kelas dari bentuk dasar aplikasi sehingga antarmuka antar aplikasi J2ME dan
aplikasi manajemen pada perangkat dapat terbentuk.
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METODE PENELITIAN
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Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini
adalah dengan pembuatan aplikasi pada Handphone untuk pembelajaran bahasa
inggris. Adapun bahasa pemrograman yang digunakan dalam pembuatan program ini
adalah J2ME dengan standar CLDC 1.1 dan MIDP 2.0.
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Adapun
mekanisme perancangan aplikasi tersebut antara lain:
1.
Spesifikasi Sistem
Spesifikasi komputer yang digunakan adalah
:
1. Prosesor Intel Pentium II 350 mhz
2. SDRAM 64 MB
3. Sistem Operasi Windows XP SP 2
4. Terinstall software J2ME
5. Ruang ksosong harddisk minimal 5 MB
2. Desain Antar Muka
Pada aplikasi ini akan menggunakan beberapa
komponen dari J2ME seperti List, Ticker, Alert, Form, ChoiceGroup, StringItem
dan Image. Flowchart di dalam aplikasi ini terbagi menjadi beberapa bagian
seperti flowchart untuk menu utama, flowchart menu soal dan flowchart untuk tampilan
Tenses yang ada dalam aplikasi ini.
3.3. Flowchart Aplikasi
Aplikasi terdiri dari 2 menu utama yaitu
menuPembelajaran Tenses dan Menu Soal Tenses. Padasaat aplikasidibuka pertama
kali / ketika MIDlet dijalankan pertama kali maka akan ada proses inisialisasi
(AMS dijalankan). Kemudian proses berikutnya adalah fungsi MIDlet diaktifkan
yaitu pada startApp( ), fungsinya agar MIDlet dalam keadaan aktif (layar aktif).
Setelah itu akan muncul Alert sebagai pesan pembuka. Sampai disini user dihadapkan
pada kondisi untuk memilih apakah ingin masuk ke menu utama atau tidak. Jika
Tidak maka aplikasi / MIDlet dalam keadaan Paused. Setelah itu saat user
keluar dari MIDlet maka metode destroyApp( ) akan dijalankan sebelum MIDlet
benar-benar tidak dapat berjalan lagi dan selesai. Jika Ya maka akan muncul
layar splash (layar yang dimunculkan beberapa saat tepat sebelum menu utama
muncul). Setelah layar splash muncul, tampilan berikutnya adalah tampilan
menu utama aplikasi.
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Dalam Pembuatan Aplikasi Pembelajaran
Bahasa Inggris ini menggunakan J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition) karena dapat
digunakan untuk menangani pemrograman di dalam perangkat-perangkat kecil
dalam hal ini adalah mobile device seperti pager, smart card, cell phone,
handheld PDA, Handphone, dan termasuk ke dalam kategori software support
hardware. Dalam aplikasi ini yang ditampilkan adalah pembelajaran Tenses pada
bahasa Inggris beserta menu latihan soal Tenses, yang dapat dijalankan pada
emulator yang telah disediakan yaitu pada device / alat mobile device yang
sesungguhnya. Aplikasi yang dibuat bersifat informasi (menampilkan data).
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NO
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KESIMPULAN
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1
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Program dapat dijalankan pada emulator yang
telah disediakan.
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2
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Program dapat dijalankan pada device / alat
mobile device yang sesungguhnya.
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3
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Pembelajaran tenses bahasa Inggris pada
pembuatan aplikasi ini dapat ditampilkan, dan bersifat informasi (menampilkan
data)
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Jurnal 5
Judul : Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis
Dalam Pembelajaran Sains Untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas II SDN
Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya
Penulis : Nanik Wahyuni. Irena Yolanita Maureen, S.Pd,
M.Sc
Tahun : 2016
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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Terjadinya
kendala dalam proses penyampaian pesan yang dilakukan oleh pendidik kepada
peserta didik ketika dilakukannya kegiatan proses belajar mengajar sehingga
penulis ingin memberikan metode pengajaran yang menarik dan efektif untuk
diterapkan dalam proses pengajaran untuk siswa SD khususnya dengan
menggunakan media puzzle
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Arief
Sadiman (2008:7) media adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat digunakan untuk
menyalurkan pesan dari pengirim ke penerima sehingga dapat merangsang
pikiran, perasaan, perhatian dan minat serta perhatian siswa sedemikian rupa
sehingga proses belajar terjadi.
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Media Puzzle adalah alat yang digunakan
untuk menyalurkan pesan dengan cara menyambungkan bagian satu dengan yang
lainnya sehingga membentuk suatu gambar. Dalam penelitian yang dilakukan
sebelumnya diketahui bahwa ada hubungan yang signifikan antara pemanfaatan
media Puzzle dengan kreatifitas
berpikir anak, dan pemanfaatan media Puzzle
jika dilaksanakan dengan baik akan dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir anak
terutama dalam pengenalan bentuk. (Chaiyunah:2006)
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Media
pembelajaran memiliki beberapa nilai praktis yaitu, yang pertama media dapat
mengatasi keterbatasan pengalaman yang dimiliki siswa, yang kedua media dapat
mengatasi batas ruang kelas, yang ketiga media dapat memungkinkan terjadinya
interaksi langsung antara peserta dengan lingkungan, yang keempat media dapat
menghasilkan keseragaman pengamatan, yang kelima media dapat menanamkan
konsep dasar yang benar, nyata, dan tepat, yang keenam media dapat
membangkitkan motivasi dan merangsang peserta untuk belajar dengan baik, yang
ketujuh media dapat membangkitkan keinginan dan minat baru, kedelapan media
dapat mengontrol kecepatan belajar siswa, dan yang terakhir media dapat
memberikan pengalaman yang menyeluruh dari hal-hal yang konkret sampai
abstrak. (Sanjaya 2008:209)
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Djamarah
dalam Aunurrahman (2009:115) mengemukakan bahwa motivasi terkait erat dengan
kebutuhan. Semakin besar kebutuhan seseorang akan sesuatu yang ingin ia
capai, maka akan semakin kuat motivasi untuk mencapainya. Kebutuhan yang kuat
terhadap sesuatu akan mendorong seseorang untuk mencapainya dengan sekuat
tenaga. Hanya dengan motovasi anak didik dapat tergerak hatinya untuk belajar
bersama teman-temannya yang lain. Tanpa adanya motivasi tidak mungkin siswa
memiliki kemauan untuk belajar.
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Trianto
(2007:29) mengatakan pembelajaran terjadi apabila anak bekerja atau belajar
menangani tugas-tugas yang belum dipelajari namun tugas-tugas itu masih
berada dalam jangkauan kemampuannya atau tugas-tugas tersebut berada dalam zone of proximal development.
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METODE PENELITIAN
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penelitian
dengan judul “Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle
Metamorfosis Pada Pembelajaran Sains
dengan Subpokok Bahasan Pertumbuhan Hewan dan Tumbuhan Terhadap Hasil
Belajar Siswa Kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya”, dikategorikan sebagai
penelitian deskriptif kuantitatif dengan jenis penelitian Pre Experimental
Design.
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Ada 3
jenis design yang dimasukkan ke dalam kategori pre experimental design, yaitu
(1) one shot study case (2) pre test and post test (3) statistic group comparison. Model yang
digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah model kedua yaitu one group
pretest-posttest design. Penelitian semu dengan model kedua ini
dilaksanakan pada satu kelompok saja tanpa ada kelompok pembanding.
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Dalam
penerapan penelitian dengan menggunakan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis dibutuhkan tiga kali pertemuan dalam
pembelajaran agar hasil yang didapat bisa maksimal. Pertemuan pertama,
dilakukan pembelajaran secara klasikal dan pengenalan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis, selain itu pada
akhir pertemuan pertama siswa diberi soal pretest. Pertemuan kedua,
dijelaskan mengenai tata cara dan ujicoba Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis dalam
pembelajaran. Pertemuan ketiga, dilakukan pembelajaran langsung serta
aplikasi Pemanfaatan Media Puzzle Metamorfosis
dalam pembelajaran, serta pemberian LKS sebagai posttest Penelitian ini akan dilaksanakan pada
minggu keempat bulan juni selama satu minggu.
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Penelitian
ini bertempat di ruang kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya dan dilakukan
pada saat pulang sekolah setelah siswa melakukan pembelajaran secara formal.
Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah observasi
dan tes. Teknik observasi digunakan untuk memantau peran guru dalam
pembelajaran dengan memanfaatkan Media Puzzle
Metamorfosis serta untuk mengukur ranah afektif dan psikomotorik pada siswa.
Observasi yang dipilih adalah observasi sistematis dengan mengadakan
pengamatan secara langsung terhadap suatu proses kegiatan pembelajaran untuk
menilai aktifitas peserta didik dan guru dengan menggunakan pedoman
observasi. Observasi yang dilakukan berpedoman pada instrument observasi,
sedangkan yang diobservasi adalah proses pembelajaran Sains dengan
menggunakan media Puzzle
Metamorfosis.
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Observasi
yang dipilih disini adalah observasi sistematis dengan mengadakan pengamatan
secara langsung terhadap suatu proses kegiatan pembelajaran Sains khususnya
pokok bahasan pertumbuhan hewan dan tumbuhan yang dilakukan siswa kelas
2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya.
Sedangkan teknik tes digunakan untuk mengukur ranah kognitif pada siswa.
Dalam penelitian ini peneliti menggunakan jenis tes prestasi atau achievement
test, yaitu test yang digunakan untuk mengukur pencapaian seseorang setelah
mempelajari sesuatu. Tes merupakan alat untuk mengukur prestasi siswa, dalam
tes ini berisi uraian yang menuntut siswa untuk menjawab soal dalam bentuk
menguaraikan, menjelaskan, dan dalam bentuk lain yang sesuai dengan pemahaman
siswa yang diterpakan dengan bahasa siswa itu sendiri dalam menjawab tes
uraian tersebut.
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Subyek
penelitian ini adalah siswa-siswi
kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 Surabaya sebanyak 42 anak. Penelitian yang
akan dilakukan hanya terfokus pada siswa kelas 2 SDN Sawunggaling I/382 maka,
hasil atau kesimpulan dari panelitian
ini hanya berlaku bagi SDN
Swunggaling I/382 khususnya kelas 2. karakteristik siswa SDN Sawunggaling I/382 dipengaruhi dua hal utama yaitu keadaan
ekonomi yang sebagian besar menengah kebawah dan rendahnya latar belakang
pendidikan orang tua sehingga mereka kurang perhatian terhadap pendidikan
anaknya
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NO
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KESIMPULAN
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1
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Proses
pemanfaatan media Puzzle
Metamorfosis dilakukan dengan membagi siswa menjadi kelompok-kelompok kecil
yang masing-masing anggota kelompok beranggotakan maksimal 4 orang. Guru
memantau kerja tiap-tiap kelompok dan pada akhir pembelajaran siswa diberi
LKS sebagai post test.
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2
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Hasil
analisis observasi proses pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis dengan sumber data guru diperoleh nilai dari
pengamat I sebesar 84,21% dan diperoleh nilai dari pengamat II sebesar 82, 45
% sehingga rerata dari pengamat I dan II adalah 83, 33 % jika hasil tersebut
dikonsultasikan dengan kriteria maka tergolong baik sekali.
Hasil
analisis observasi proses pemanfaatan media pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis dengan sumber data
siswa diperoleh nilai dari pengamat I sebesar 81, 25 % dan diperoleh nilai
dari pengamat II sebesar 83, 33% sehingga rerata dari pengamat I dan II
adalah 82, 29 %. Jika hasil tersebut dikonsultasikan dengan kriteria, maka tergolong baik sekali.
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3
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Terdapat
pengaruh yang signifikan anatara pemanfaatan media Puzzle Metamorfosis terhadap hasil belajar, hal ini dibuktikan
melalui tes uji–t yang diperoleh nilai 7, 22 dengan db = 42 – 1 = 41 taraf
signifikan 5 % sehingga diperoleh t tabel 1,70. Dari hasil perhitungan
tersebut diketahui bahwa t hitung lebih besar dari t tabel yaitu 7, 22 >
1,70.
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Jurnal 6
Judul : Preparing
Tomorrow’s English Language Arts Teachers Today : Principles and Practice For
Infusing Technology
Penulis : Carol A.
Pope and Jeffrey N. Golup
Tahun : 2000
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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Teachers using technology in their English
language arts classrooms are not only improving their instruction for their
students; they are changing the very nature of that instruction. The problems
that are found in this paper are How do we prepare these kinds of
teachers—the kinds of teachers who know their content (English language
arts), know content pedagogy (how to teach English language arts), and know instructional
technology (how to infuse technology appropriately into that teaching)
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We offer the following seven principles as
touchstones for infusing technology into English language arts teacher
preparation programs. These principles grow from and correlate with the
National Council of Teachers of English Guidelines for the Preparation of
Teachers of English
Language Arts (1996) and the International Society for Technology in
Education National Educational Technology Standards for Students: Connecting
Curriculum and Technology(2000).
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Technology should be a naturally
supporting
background for both the content and the pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman,
1987) of English language arts.
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To infuse this technology, we must build on
what we know from research and practice that is, "what we know about
reading [and literature], writing, speaking, listening, viewing and visually
representing" (National Council of Teachers of English, Standards,
p. 1).
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Besides the dynamic impact of technology on
our vocabulary, technology has also brought us an expanded view of "what
is considered text and how text is prepared" (National Council of
Teachers of English, Guidelines, p. 8). The Internet, hypertext
documents (like the ones in this online journal), web sites, bibliographies
with url addresses, e-mail, and personal web sites (visual representations of
ourselves and our work) all are different kinds of texts, different genres
with their own emerging characteristics. In English language arts teacher
preparation programs, we need to address these literacy shifts, varying text
forms, and the attendant skills new teachers
will need to both use and teach these new
texts and languages.
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METODE PENELITIAN
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Principles of Technology Infusion:
We and our students who will soon become
teachers need to:
1. introduce and infuse technology in
context;
They will be at different levels of
development as users of technology, and we must determine. To carry this
experience to the next level of learning, Carol's writing methods students
engage in ongoing email correspondence with students at a local middle
school. The methods students help the middle school students with their
writing, offering suggestions for revision and serving as a real,
appreciative audience. The middle school students get substantial,
individualized help with their language, and the methods students get to know
middle school students while learning the instructional revision approaches
and communication skills beneficial for young adolescents. and honor those
levels. Then, within our classes we can build the instructional scaffolds for
students to advance as technology users while staying focused on teaching
English language arts.
2. focus on the importance of technology as
a literacy tool;
In English language arts teacher
preparation programs, it is critical to acknowledge the impact technology has
had on our language—how we read, write, view, and visually represent
information. Words used everyday such as windows,files, menu,
and mouse have new meanings and mental images; headlines include such
prefixes as cyber, e-, and hyper; media ads and
discussions include such terms as dot com, url, and www.
Clearly, ad creators, writers, editors, and producers assume that members of
the reading public understand this new language. These vast lexicon changes
reflect not only a vocabulary shift but also a thinking shift. We have new
"pictures" in our reading and listening memories, pictures which
have moved into our daily communication.
3. model English language arts learning and
teaching while infusing technology;
One of the critical lessons to learn as a
teacher in a technologically rich environment is that we will never be
completely caught up; we will never know everything. We will constantly learn
with and from our students. As a result, the English language arts classroom
will necessarily become learning-centered and learner-centered,
with both teacher and student functioning in both roles. To ensure that our
soon-to-be teachers understand this shift, we need to create and model how
this kind of classroom looks and functions.
4. evaluate critically when and how to use
technology in English language arts classroom;
Teacher educators, as well as our students,
need to be critical consumers of technology, to be
thoughtful users who question, reflect, and
refract (Pope, 1999) on the best times and ways to
integrate technology. To be models of this
process, we need to be critical evaluators in our own methods classes and
involve our students in that process. The goal of this critical analysis of
technology integration is to articulate and internalize a process for
questioning and probing both the why and how of infusing technology through
various applications, programs, web sites, methods of teaching, or
communication tools. If teachers use this process, they will become
teacher-researchers in their own classrooms. They will systematically pose
questions, examine when it is appropriate and useful to integrate technology
and when it is not, and follow through with the implementation and evaluation
of the technology use. In such a process they will be "informed,
adjusted, or validated by systematic classroom observation" (Selfe,
1992, p. 33).
5. provide a wide range of opportunities to
use technology;
To provide diverse experiences and
perspectives, we can infuse opportunities for students to learn to work the
technology itself and to develop those technological skills through the study
of English language arts content as well as the English language arts content
pedagogy. Possibilities abound for the integration of technological
opportunities that relate to English
language arts content. Students can create
web sites, "read" the Internet, participate in online
discussions (ListServes, real-time chat
rooms, asynchronous discussions, videoconferences), and use all kinds of
writing process skills on computers (create texts, add graphics and pictures,
determine appropriate formats, revise extensively, and edit). The content and
pedagogy merge in such experiences.
6. examine and determine ways of analyzing,
evaluating, and grading English language arts
technology projects;
Technology products are new genres for most
of us, and they require a new set of process skills. Understandably we may be
uncertain about how to evaluate the students' process, the quality of the
work, and the product itself. When we infuse technology into our English
language arts teacher preparation programs, we as teacher educators come face
to face with these challenges. We are pushed to examine and think about these
new-found forms, genres, and products. With our students we can work to
determine the best ways of evaluating and grading them. We can make these
kinds of decisions by (a) keeping the content up front—that is, what is the
content of the product? (b) determining the objective for the project
itself—that is, what was the goal of the process and the product? what were
students to learn? (c) using that information to create rubrics and
evaluation descriptors.
7. emphasize issues of equity and diversity.
According to the NCTE Guidelines,
English language arts "teachers should be sensitive to
student needs so that all students,
regardless of differences, receive encouragement, support, and opportunities
to learn" (p. 11). We need for our soon-to-be-teachers to both witness
and understand the diverse accessibility to technology their school and their
students will have. And they must consider this variability in their class
assignments, opportunities for use in the school day, and homework
expectations. In our teacher preparation programs we need to reference this
challenge in our own assignments, classroom work, and expectations.
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KESIMPULAN
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From these principles and examples of
infusing technology into English language arts teacher
preparation, clearly the classrooms of
today and tomorrow will look very different. No longer
will the teacher be the dispenser of
information; teachers and students will be learners together In such an
environment students participate actively and directly in their own
education. They will not rely solely on the teacher but will use the Internet
and electronic tools and media to gather information and gain insights.
"The increased use of the Internet and the proliferation of websites has
brought about a new set of basic skills for students (and even adults) to
master: information literacy skills. Paul Gilster, in his book, Digital
Literacy, defines this kind of literacy as `the ability to understand and
use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is
presented via computers'" (Golub, pp. 52-54
This shift to a learning-centered classroom
does not mean, however, that the teacher is obsolete. Instead, it demands
that the teacher's role change from that of an "information-giver"
to one of "designer" and "director" of instruction.
Teachers need to design worthwhile problems for students to solve and
worthwhile projects for students to pursue. As students work on these activities,
the teacher "directs" the students, offering suggestions and
serving as a respondent for their emerging insights. Using the principles we
offer above, we suggest that English language arts methods classes can infuse
technology in a way that does not interfere with the content pedagogy but
supports it in a way that actively involves students and prepares them with
the technical and pedagogical skills for creating the new learning-centered
classroom.
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Jurnal 7
Judul : Connecting Informal and Formal Learning
Experiences in The Age of Participatory Media
Tahun :
2008
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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The renaissance
stimulated by the World Wide Web is generating multiple formats and channels
of communication and creativity. These include blogs, wikis, instant
messaging, and texting in the realm of writing, podcasting in audio,
countless sites such as Flickr for distribution and sharing of images, and
video shared via YouTube and other sites. The Pew Internet and American Life
project reports that the majority of all teens are now engaged in active
creation of online content. The rise of social media reflects new
opportunities and outlets for creativity.
Increased youth engagement through these
activities represents a repurposing of what Clay Shirky terms a cognitive
surplus. Shirky, a professor in the Interactive Telecommunications
Program at New York University, believes that a movement from passive
activities such as watching television to more active and creative pursuits
is emerging as a use of the cognitive surplus in the Web 2.0 era.
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Sterling (2008) suggests that the energy
and creativity emerging outside schools should be harnessed and linked to the
academic enterprise within schools. Capitalizing on these tools for creative
expression in schools is more difficult than it might appear.
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The National
Science Foundation (NSF) employs the term “informal learning” to describe
learning and engagement that occurs outside formal school setting.
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Informal learning
happens throughout people’s lives in a highly personalized manner based on
their particular needs, interests, and past experiences. This type of
multi-faceted learning is voluntary, self-directed, and often mediated within
a social context (Falk, 2001, Dierking et al., 2004); it provides
an experiential base and motivation for further activity and subsequent
learning. (NSF, 2006, Section I, Introduction)
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Prenksy (2001)
coined the term “digital natives” to describe this generation of students who
are all “‘native speakers’ of the digital language of computers, video games
and the Internet” (p. 1).
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METODE PENELITIAN
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Challenges in Adapting Web 2.0 Technologies
to School Use:
There are
numerous constraints in school that present challenges:
1.
School
content must address specific learning objectives.
2.
Many
learning objectives are subject to time constraints.
3.
Addition
of technology can increase the complexity of classroom management.
4.
Schools
are heavily invested in print technologies and often constrain Internet
access in ways that limit access to online media tools.
5.
Teachers
have limited models for effective integration of media in their teaching.
6.
Only
limited research is available to guide best practice.
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Encouraging Dynamic Dialog
In the
forthcoming summit (NTLS X), participants will explore ways in which dynamic
media used in informal settings outside school can be adapted for school use.
By dynamic media we are referring to both technical characteristics
– media that is interactive, multilayered, and mobile – as well as cultural
characteristics – media that is remixable, sharable, and used as a
springboard for social interactions.
Because of the
diversity of informal learning settings, there is no single organization that
represents these types of uses in the same way that the Association of
Mathematics Teacher Educators (for example) represents mathematics educators.
However, inclusion of some of the leaders from informal learning settings
will provide an opportunity to begin a dialog with teacher educators
representing core content areas.
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Linking Informal to Formal Learning
In order to
translate informal use of communication technologies outside school into
applied activities inside school, educators must consider content and the
pedagogies best suited for bridging these in- and out-of-school uses of
technology. Schools of education provide a natural entry point for
considering possible approaches for accomplishing this.
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KESIMPULAN
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Social media are
changing the world in ways not yet understood. The effects are rippling
through news, business, entertainment, and the political arena. A new
generation of students is significantly more active in the way that they
create and interact with one another.
One effect on
schools and schooling is apparent. The next generation will live in a world
that is very different from the previous generation. The current generation
of educators is not well equipped to serve as guides in this process – we are
all learning together as new media technologies emerge. In fact, teens are
often more experienced in use of these technologies than other demographic
groups.
The informal
learning that occurs in the context of participatory media offers significant
opportunities for increased student engagement in formal learning settings.
The experience with communication technologies that teenagers today possess
must be tapped by educators and connected to pedagogy and content, however,
in order to address learning objectives in schools. Teacher education faculty
members are experienced in this arena. We are currently at a moment in time
in which the current and next generation of educators each can make a genuine
contribution by working together.
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Jurnal 8
Judul : Multi-grade
teaching practices in Austrian and Finnish primary schools
Tahun : 2015
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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This
article seeks to contribute to the discussion of rural education and teaching
in multi-grade classes by reporting an investigation into the teaching
strategies used by teachers of such classes in rural primary schools. The
main focus is on small schools in Austria and Finland, defined in our study as
schools with fewer than fifty students. In general, small schools are rural
primary schools. They usually employ two or three teachers who teach
different grades in the same classroom; this is called multi-grade or
multi-age teaching.
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multi-grade
teaching has certain benefits, including student-centered learning and
teaching processes, flexible teaching, a family-like and secure atmosphere,
the ease of implementing innovative change, support for individual learning
tempos, and flexible school-entry (e.g., Kalaoja & Pietarinen, 2009).
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multi-grade
teaching can also be seen as especially challenging because of the widely
varying needs of children of different ages. Despite its importance in
primary education, there has been a lack of research on the practices used in
multi-grade teaching. This article seeks to address this gap. Our research
question “What kinds of teaching practices are used in multi-grade classes?”
focuses on the micro-level of
school pedagogy ( Fend, 2006) with the aim of identifying the
learning and teaching possibilities and resources that are supported or
available in multi-grade classrooms.
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Cornish (2006b) identifies additional
practices or strategies used in multi-grade classes. “Split timetable or
subject stagger” means that, for example, in a class with two grades, the
grades study different subjects; the teacher prepares two different lessons
and alternates between the grades. “Common timetable” means that students in
each grade can study the same subject at the same time, but on the basis of
different instructions and activities for each grade. “Some whole-class
teaching” refers to a practice in which the subject areas are the same for
both grades and parts of lessons (often introductions and conclusions) are
taught to all groups together. “Whole-class teaching for the whole period”
means that the two grades are taught the same subject and content at the same
time. Cornish (2006b) also describes
“within-grade grouping”, “cross-grade grouping”, and “peer tutoring”; these
are practices in which students help one another.
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Hoffman (2002) emphasizes flexible
grouping strategies as significant contributors to students’ learning in
multi-age classes. One can also assume that successful organization will be
linked to the student-related social practices of the teachers and fairly
distributed time management between the different groups of learners.
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The
following sub-categories of the first main category student group formation
and subject organizing are primarily based on the definitions of
multi-grade practices proposed byKalaoja (2006) and Cornish (2006b):
1.
parallel curriculum:
students share the same themes or subjects but study the syllabus of their
grade; each grade is taught in turn,
2.
curriculum rotation:
an entire class studies the curriculum of one grade for one year; in the next
school year, they follow the syllabus of the other grade; grades are taught
together,
3.
curriculum alignment and spiral curriculum:
similar topics are identified in different grade curricula; students share
the same themes or subjects; the basic concepts or ideas that are taught in
the lower grades are deepened and expanded on in the upper grades,
4.
subject stagger: grades study different
subjects; each grade is taught in turn
5.
whole-class teaching:
grades study and are taught the same subject at the same time and use the
same material.
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We began by reading the teacher
narratives and differentiating episodes in which teachers described their
various teaching practices and principles, often illustrating them with
teaching situations from their own classes (Riessman, 2008).
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The
episodes were then organized under different themes and sub-themes using a computer-assisted
qualitative data analysis program called NVivo10, software that supports
qualitative and mixed-methods research (Bazeley, 2007).
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METODE PENELITIAN
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The
empirical part of this research is based on a study conducted in the context
of Austrian and Finnish primary schools. Both countries feature nine years of
compulsory basic education, preceded by one year of compulsory kindergarten
in Austria and by one year of pre-primary education in Finland. Compulsory
schooling starts at the age of six in Austria and at the age of seven in
Finland. A specific feature of the Austrian education system is the four-year
primary education structure (Volksschule) ( Austrian Federal Ministry of Education and
Women’s Affairs, 2015). After completing these four years, students are assigned
to three types of secondary level I schools (fifth–eighth grades): new
secondary school (Neue Mittelschule), general secondary school, or
academic secondary school. Secondary level I is followed by various options
for secondary level II (ninth school year onward) in the Austrian education
system. Finnish basic education consists of a nine-year comprehensive school
(Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture, 2015). The first six years of
comprehensive school are usually called “primary school” (the term used in
this article), and grades seven to nine are referred to as “lower secondary
school”. In Finland, the school structure has been the same for all children
during their first nine school years since the beginning of the 1970s, when
the Finnish comprehensive school reform was enacted.
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Teacher
interviews (n = 14) were collected
in three small Austrian rural schools in 2013 and in two small rural schools
in northern Finland from 2010 to 2012. The Austrian schools were selected by
first sending an email enquiry to 18 rural schools in one Austrian state. Two
schools replied spontaneously, expressing interest in taking part in the
research project. The other schools were contacted by telephone, and one additional
school expressed its willingness to participate in the study. These three
schools, located in different parts of the state, represent typical Austrian
small rural schools: they are situated in the center of their small
communities, not far from the church and the town hall. In two of the
Austrian schools, there were two multi-grade classes and two class teachers,
with about 25–30 students from preschool to the 4th grade (children five to
ten years old). In the third school, all of its 11 students from preschool to
the 4th grade formed one class with one teacher and a part-time teacher. In
the Austrian schools, the data from teacher interviews (n = 7) were collected during two school
visits of 2–3 days. Additionally, a head teacher who regularly visits school
lessons of her teaching force was also interviewed.
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The
two Finnish schools were chosen as representative of “typical” small Finnish
schools, with three multi-grade teaching groups and three class teachers.
There were about 40–45 students from preschool to the 6th grade in both
schools (children six–twelve years old). Both schools were located about
15 km from the center of the municipality and also from the next nearest
school. All teachers came from neighboring villages or towns. In one Finnish
school, the data from teacher interviews (n = 4)
were collected during three school visits of 3–5 days. In the other Finnish
school, data were collected during a one-day visit to the school (n = 3). Teachers were interviewed during
the school day and were also visited in their classrooms for one lesson. In
the classroom visits, the following aspects were observed: the arrangement of
the classroom, the teaching material, the grouping of students, teachers’
utilization of time and how they shifted between different groups and stages,
and students’ peer interactions. In this article, we use only the data from
teacher interviews to answer the research question; however, we recognize
that the observation data have improved our understanding of the teaching
practices described by the teachers.
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The
duration of the interviews varied between 25 and 40 min. In this
article, the interviewed teachers are referred to with pseudonyms. The code A
after the pseudonym denotes an Austrian teacher; the code F, a Finnish
teacher. These codes are used when the nationalities are not specified in the
context of the text. The data consist of 14 transcribed interviews of class
teachers: five female Austrian teachers (Bettina, Julia, Ines, Karin, and
Linda), five female Finnish teachers (Johanna, Leena, Maria, Noora, and
Petra), two male Austrian teachers (Chris and Hans), and two male Finnish
teachers (Lauri and Matias). Ines (A), Noora (F), Petra (F), and Lauri (F)
can be considered beginning teachers: at the time of data collection, they
were working in their first jobs as teachers, having graduated 1–3 years
previously. Huberman (1989) calls this stage of a teacher’s
career the stage of coping or finding, where it is important to “survive” in
the classroom. Julia (A), Johanna (F), Maria (F), and Matias (F) were in the
stage of stabilizing (Huberman, 1989) in their teaching careers, having
teaching experience of 4–7 years. Leena (F) and Bettina (A) began their
teaching careers at the beginning of the 1990s; they were in the stage of
experiment and active development (Huberman, 1989), like Chris (A), Hans (A), and Karin
(A), who all had about ten years’ experience with teaching. On the basis of
Leena (F) and Bettina’s (A) almost twenty years of teaching, they can be
considered experienced teachers, as can Linda (A), who had taught for about
thirty years.
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During
the interviews, teachers were asked to elaborate on how they had begun their
careers and to describe their work in their small schools and multi-grade
classes. They were also asked to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
multi-grade teaching and the use of peer learning in their teaching. The
interviews were recorded on digital recorders and transcribed;
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KESIMPULAN
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The
aim of our study was to gain insight into instructional practices in
multi-grade classes in order to obtain a better understanding of learning and
teaching possibilities in such settings. As data, we used interview responses
collected from 14 teachers in Austrian and Finnish small primary schools.
Austria and Finland were chosen due to their similarities in terms of
multi-grade teaching traditions and small schools and their differences in
approaches with regard to teacher education. The research results reveal that
in both countries diverse teaching practices are used in multi-grade classes
in small schools. Two main strategies can be identified. One strategy
involves reducing or overcoming the heterogeneity of students as much as
possible through teaching practices such as parallel curricula, curriculum
rotation, and whole-class teaching. In such practices, the teacher either
teaches one heterogeneous group, with the same teaching content and
assignments for all students, or works with a age homogeneous group while the
other group (or groups) works silently on their own assignments. A different
approach uses practices that capitalize on the heterogeneity of the students
but also reduce teaching demands, such as peer tutoring, personal work plans,
or free work. These techniques we regard as optimal didactical solutions for
multi-grade teaching for several reasons: They are grounded on the idea that
heterogeneity is normal and that the search for homogeneity is a false friend
for instruction; they focus on the perspective of individual children instead
of groups; they support peer learning and foster cognitive as well as social
development; and they emphasize subjective learning processes and goals as
sampling criteria rather than objective aspects such as age or grade.
Moreover, the data show the teachers' desire to organize their teaching in a
workable way with different teaching groups and the integration of various
subjects. The teachers also sought to support different learners through
forms of differentiation and individualized learning guides such as work
plans or differentiated assignments.
As mentioned above, it is impossible
to identify a most common practice in multi-grade teaching from our study. A
similar result has been found in earlier studies (Little, 2001 and Lindström and Lindahl, 2011). One reason for the wide range of
practices could be the lack of multi-grade teaching options in textbooks and
curricula, as well as in teacher education (Little, 2001). Thus, the teachers in our study
may have developed their personal teaching styles primarily in practical
situations in their own classes or with the help of their colleagues.
Researchers have referred to this type of problem in terms of a divide
between theory and practice, thereby raising doubts about the effectiveness
of teacher education in general and suggesting that new and promising views
of learning and teaching could better serve schools (Korthagen, 2010).
In addition to teaching practices
that favour individual work on the part of students, we suggest that
whole-group practices are needed to strengthen the social cohesion of the
students and to support the cooperation of students in different grades. The
spiral curriculum is one possibility for such a practice, not only because of
its social advantages but also because of its potential to activate and
utilize the readiness and range of knowledge of different types of learners.
As Bruner’s (2006) hermeneutical theories highlight,
this method can range from intuitive to more formal structures. The results
of our research indicate that curriculum alignment using the spiral
curriculum was not prevalent in the teaching practices described. However,
one cannot realistically expect individual teachers to adapt the available
teaching material for that purpose, in addition to all their other work (Little, 2001). Thus, it is necessary to
investigate the ideas underlying the spiral curriculum and how they can be
integrated into the level of core curricula. This would potentially inspire
textbook authors and other actors to produce new teaching materials and tasks
based on the precepts of the spiral curriculum.
There are some limitations of our
study. Firstly, our sample size was small, and the teachers were from a very
specific group, namely teachers in small rural schools at the primary school
level. Based on our research, we cannot assume that their teaching practices
are representative for multi-grade classes. However, the cross-cultural analysis
(Lahelma and Gordon, 2010) of the data collected in two
countries, in the differing cultural contexts of Austria and Finland, helps
to increase our theoretical understanding of multi-grade teaching, and we
have discovered similar patterns of multi-grade teaching practices across the
two countries. Further studies utilizing different types of data—for example,
a complementary video study—will be required to test the validity of the
patterns. Moreover, there is a need for research that deepens the
understanding of high-quality teaching practices in multi-grade classes that
can be linked to empirical research findings on teaching such as clear
structure, individual learning support, formative feedback, adaptive
teaching, or professional classroom management (Hattie, 2009). Like Hahn and Berthold (2010), we suggest that another crucial
indicator of high quality in multi-grade teaching relates to practices that
utilize the heterogeneity of the multi-grade classes instead of neglecting or
even ignoring it. Secondly, the study is restricted to the teachers’
perspectives. In the next step, it would be advisable to relate teaching
practices to students’ learning in multi-grade classes. For example, the
social advantages of peer tutoring for students seem to be obvious, but more
knowledge is needed with regard to how these practices support learning and
help students to construct knowledge together with their peers (see, e.g., Parr & Townsend, 2002). In addition, more research on
different group formations is required in order to identify their “social
pedagogic” potential and to investigate their role in educational settings (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines,
& Galton, 2003).
For example, the flexible grouping strategies used in multi-age classes may
be an effective way to meet the instructional needs of students and encourage
their collaborative work (Hoffman, 2002).
Despite the shortcomings of our
research, the results identify certain challenges in teacher education. Thus
far, teachers have only been marginally—if at all—prepared for multi-grade
teaching, a criticism that has arisen in other studies as well (Kline, White, & Lock,
2013;Raggl, 2011). We, therefore, suggest that
teacher educators and researchers should become more aware of high-quality
teaching practices in multi-grade teaching, such as the professional use of
individual work plans, peer tutoring or spiral curriculum. Such practices
demand optimal planning and instruction on the part of teachers and require
that students receive individual feedback and learning support. We expect
that good multi-grade teaching practices such as those suggested above would
serve single-grade classes equally well, since every class is characterized
by heterogeneity (e.g., with regard to age, gender, interests, aptitudes, and
experiences). One task of teacher education should be to raise awareness of
the potential and effectiveness of multi-grade teaching and to cultivate it
in the curriculum (Mulryan-Kyne, 2007). This would not only enrich our
understanding of good practices in multi-grade teaching, but would also help
teachers to choose and develop teaching practices that contribute to and
optimize students’ learning in their heterogeneous classes.
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Jurnal 9
Judul
:Confidence as motivational expressions of interest,
utility, and other influences: Exploring under-confidence and over-confidence
in science students at secondary school
Tahun : 2016
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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An
enhanced understanding of how students’ self-confidence is influenced
benefits educational practice and motivational theories. For 1523 students in
12 secondary schools in England, science self-confidence was predicted by
various factors: current self-confidence (self-concept) was most strongly
predicted by received praise, current grades, and interest in science;
self-confidence for future attainment (self-efficacy) was most strongly
predicted by current grades and perceived utility of science.
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tudents’
self-confidence does not necessarily correspond to their actual attainment,
however: reviews have consistently found only modest associations between
various indicators of each (Hansford and Hattie, 1982; Zell & Krizan, 2014) and further research has
revealed and explored ‘confidence biases’ towards under-confidence or
over-confidence. Under-confidence has generally been inferred or shown to be
motivationally detrimental (Bandura, 1997; Bouffard & Narciss, 2011), which has important
educational implications; under-confident students may not select subjects
that they might otherwise succeed in and enjoy, for example, which may limit
numbers of students who study non-compulsory subjects (Sheldrake, Mujtaba, & Reiss, 2014).
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Self-concept
evolved from general psychological measures (such as self-esteem), rather
than within a motivational theory, and was originally conceptualised as a
person’s perceptions of their self, formed through experiences and
interactions with and within the environment (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976).
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Students’
self-concept has been theorised to be influenced by numerous factors,
including mastery experiences (such as gaining particular grades or results),
self-comparisons over time, self-comparisons across subjects, comparisons
with other students, causal attributions (factors attributed to success or
failure, such as being due to the student or being due to outside forces),
social persuasions, psychological centrality (how important an area is to the
student), and potentially various other factors (Bong and Skaalvik, 2003). Extensive research has
focused on particular areas, specifically peer-comparisons (e.g. Marsh and Parker, 1984 and Marsh et al., 2015a) and subject-comparisons
(e.g. Marsh, 1986 and Marsh et al., 2015b).
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theoretical
perspectives have also emerged that integrate both self-concept and
self-efficacy. Following from social-cognitive theory, the expectancy-value
model of motivated behavioural choices (Eccles, 2009; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) proposes that students
interpret their own background and their context, including their own
personal experiences, which forms and influences their beliefs about their
own abilities (akin to self-concept) and their own identity; these beliefs
then inform the students’ expectations of success (akin to self-efficacy) and
subjective task values (‘subjective-values’ for brevity); these beliefs in
turn then inform students’ actions and choices. Such factors are assumed to
reciprocally influence one another; for example, students’ expectations of
success may influence their subjective-values, and students’
subjective-values may influence their expectations of success.
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The
various subjective-values, whether considered alone or within the
expectancy-value model, have been increasingly applied within international
science and mathematics research and have indeed been found to closely relate
to students’ subject choices and attainment (Bøe and Henriksen, 2015; Bøe, Henriksen, Lyons, & Schreiner, 2011; Wang and Degol, 2013).
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METODE PENELITIAN
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Data
collection occurred during the 2014/2015 academic year. Secondary schools
within England were randomly sampled; schools were invited regardless of
type, admissions policies, and other school features, except that schools
supporting only those with special educational needs were excluded. The
presented research covered 12 participating schools, of which seven were
mixed-admissions comprehensive schools (admitting boys and girls, and not
selecting students based on their achievement); mixed-admissions
comprehensive schools form the majority (68%) of all secondary schools within
England as of 2014 (Department of Education, 2015). Selective schools
(admitting students based on their achievement) and boys-only and girls-only
schools were also represented in the sample. The 12 schools covered a range
of geographical locations and prior performance, although considered together
(on average, from publicly-available achievement tables) 60% of their
students were reported to have achieved five or more A*-C grades (including
in both English and mathematics) or equivalents for GCSE level, compared to a
national average of 47% as of 2014 (Department of Education, 2015). The presented research
explored the views of 1523 students (685 in Year 9, 489 in Year 10, and 349
in Year 11; 635 girls and 871 boys) from these schools.
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1.
Measuring students’ experiences and beliefs
Students completed science-specific
questionnaires. The questionnaire items were designed to be comparable with a
broad range of international research, including TIMSS (Mullis, Martin, Ruddock,
O’Sullivan, & Preuschoff, 2009). Most areas were measured through agreement scales
with categories of (1) ‘strongly disagree’, (2) ‘disagree’, (3) ‘slightly
disagree’, (4) ‘slightly agree’, (5) ‘agree’, and (6) ‘strongly agree’. All
responses/items were subsequently coded (reversing category scores as
necessary) so that high item/factor scores (e.g. 6) indicated a positive
belief or experience (e.g. doing well, being interested, the absence of
anxiety). When applicable, theorised factors were calculated through averages
of the relevant items; single-factor structures (via confirmatory factor
analysis via maximum likelihood estimation) and acceptable indicators of
reliability (Cronbach’s α coefficients).
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2. Students’
subject-level self-confidence was measured through expressions of:
Ø self-concept
(agreement/disagreement with e.g. ‘I usually do well in science’, ‘I have
always been good at science’);
Ø and
self-efficacy (‘What grade do you think you will be able to get at GCSE (or
equivalent) science?’ and ‘What grade do you think you would be able to get
if you studied your best science subject at A-Level?’, with categories of (1)
‘E’ and ‘Lower’, (2) ‘D’, (3) ‘C’, (4) ‘B’, (5) ‘A’, and (6) ‘A*’).
This expression of
self-efficacy has contextual relevance to students in England who may need to
gain specific grades in order to study on particular courses or to enter university.
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2.
Theorised influences on self-confidence
Students’
reported experiences or beliefs were measured for various theorised sources,
antecedents, or influences on their self-confidence:
Ø current grades (scaled to 1–6 as above for
consistency), which can be formally conceptualised as ‘mastery experiences’;
Ø perceptions of attainment standards (‘What
grade do you think people need to get in order to be “good” at science?’,
scaled as before), which can be conceptualised as ‘mastery norms’;
Ø subject-comparisons (agreement/disagreement
with ‘Science is harder for me than any other subject’, reverse-scored);
Ø peer-comparisons (‘Science is harder for me
than for many of my classmates’, reverse-scored);
Ø positive vicarious experiences (‘When I see
how another student solves a science problem, I can see myself solving the
problem in the same way’);
Ø positive social persuasions (e.g. ‘My
science teacher tells me I am good at science’), which can intuitively be
called ‘praise’;
Ø and anxiety (e.g. ‘Science makes me
confused and nervous’, reverse-scored).
These covered the four theorised
antecedents to self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) and covered the
subject-comparisons and peer-comparisons (phrased as per TIMSS for
comparability) that are assumed to be relevant to self-concept. Self-reported
grades are generally considered sufficiently reliable indicators of actual
grades although may still be (unavoidably) misreported to some extent (Kuncel, Credé, & Thomas,
2005); it was
operationally unfeasible to collect grades in other ways (which would require
non-anonymous questionnaires and schools to provide attainment lists, for
example).
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KESIMPULAN
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Increasing the numbers of students
studying science remains a priority for England and for other countries (The Royal Society, 2014). Considering students’
self-confidence offers a productive way to help ensure that students’ future
choices are not unnecessarily constrained; in contrast to other potential
influences on subject choices, such as school type, home resources, and
students’ backgrounds (Regan & DeWitt, 2015), under-confidence or
over-confidence (once recognised) can more feasibly be amended via
interventions, teachers, or the students themselves.
On
average, students’ science self-confidence was predicted by various factors:
current self-confidence (self-concept, expressed as subjective beliefs of
‘doing well’ or ‘being good’ at science) was most strongly predicted by
received praise, current grades, and interest in science; self-confidence for
future attainment (self-efficacy, expressed as expected future grades) was
most strongly predicted by current grades and perceived utility of science.
Students
with different confidence biases were influenced in different ways. The
self-confidence beliefs (both self-concept and self-efficacy) of
under-confident students were predicted by their subject-comparisons (finding
science easier or harder than other subjects), together with other factors,
and not by their interest in science or their perceived utility of science;
conversely, the self-confidence beliefs of over-confident students were
predicted by their interest and utility of science, together with other
factors, but not by their subject-comparisons. Similarly, lower personal
value of science to the students’ identity predicted lower self-efficacy only
for under-confident students.
Addressing
under-confidence (or considering the area further) may be necessary before
assuming that increasing interest in science can promote higher
self-confidence for all students. Additionally, educators may also need to
ensure that focusing on the utility associated with science does not lead to
over-confidence, otherwise some students may potentially lack the attainment
needed to pursue their wider goals or careers.
It
may be beneficial to combine some classroom assessment with also asking
students’ about their confidence in their answers, and so potentially
increase students’ self-reflection and/or reveal under-confidence or
over-confidence. Feedback could perhaps then be tailored so that students can
reflect on their successful experiences, rather than on any other negative
feelings. Reminders may also be useful regarding science as inclusive:
attainment can be gained by all, regardless of whether someone considers
themselves to be a ‘science person’ or not.
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Jurnal 10
Judul:
Formative interventions and practice-development: A methodological perspective
on teacher rounds
Tahun: 2015
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MASALAH PENELITIAN
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LANDASAN LITERATUR
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In this paper, we examine Rounds as a
research-based method of developing practice in school settings, a method
that
claims to integrate teacher professional
development and school improvement. We see these research goals (teacher
learning and organisational development) as
linked and mutually generative (Corwin, 1975) but as goals that nonetheless
raise some
questions about the development of practice itself—in this case, the
professional practice of teaching in schools.
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Teacher Rounds (Del Prete, 2013) also draws
on the medical metaphor and also involve observation, reflection and inquiry.
Like Instructional Rounds, the work involves classroom observation by a group
and the generation of low-inference observation data. Unlike Instructional
Rounds, however, Teacher Rounds are not intended to be management-led and
they do not usually involve teachers from more than one school; they are not
usually part of a network or district-wide approach to system development.
Teachers tend to come from the one school, to generate their own problems of
practice and to be more genuinely collaborative in intent (peers working
together) and intimate.
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Del Prete (2013)
suggests that Teacher Rounds can put
teaching and learning at the centre of the life of the school and can unpack
the
complexities of these processes by
attempting to get greater insight, for example by trying to understand the
multiple
perspectives of
the students in the observed lessons.
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Finnish interventionist-researcher Yrjo
Engestro¨m has developed a methodology of formative intervention known as DWR
(Engestro¨m, 2007) based on the Vygotskian principle of ‘dual stimulation’
(Vygotsky, 1974), sometimes known as the ‘double stimulation strategy’ or the
‘instrumental method’ (Ellis, 2010). From this perspective, Engestro¨m notes
that an intervention is meant to be disruptive but intended to be
developmental in relation to the practice in which the intervention takes
place. An intervention such as DWR is meant to be deliberate, systematic and
to some extent halt or slow down business-as-usual in order for the practice
to be examined closely by the practitioners and a new critical consciousness among
practitioners stimulated. The triangular representation of the human activity
system takes centre stage in DWR
interventions
(see Fig. 1).
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DWR understands practice as an
anthropologist might: it is a cultural phenomenon, one that has developed
historically, and is inevitably collective
in that we only know if we are engaged in a practice with reference to other
practitioners of
that practice (cf. Lampert, 2009).
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Del Prete (2013) suggests that the purposes
of Teacher Rounds are ‘to support teachers in understanding student learning
and in developing their practice
individually and collectively’ (p. 1). A four-part protocol is described:
1. ‘Preparing the Round Sheet’—providing
the essential context in written form; identifying the problem of practice
posed by
the host teacher
focused on student learning; then, the ‘Round Inquiry’ or guiding questions;
2. ‘The Preround Orientation’—a discussion
of the Round Sheet with all participants to ensure that the context, the
problem
of practice and the guiding questions are
understood;
3. ‘The Round’—during which participants
gather data on the lesson being taught by the host teacher, focusing on their
problem of practice and guiding questions;
the data being generated here is of the kind sometimes called ‘low inference’
(the point being to discourage participants
from rushing to interpretation and judgement);
4. ‘The Postround reflection’—in which
observation notes are shared descriptively with reference to the Rounds
question;
followed by speculations and tentative
hypoptheses of the ‘what if’ kind; followed by a section summing up what has
been
discovered
through the Rounds process and a reflection on the process itself. (Del
Prete, 2013, pp. 141–144).
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As Olson (2004) has pointed out:
The reputation of educational research is
tarnished less by the lack of replicable results than by the lack of any
deeper
theory that would explain why the thousands
of experiments that make up the literature of the field appear to have
yielded so little. (p. 25)
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METODE PENELITIAN
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1. A
methodological perspective
The points of contact between Rounds and
CHAT-informed approaches to practice-development are interesting, we believe,
and will help us to structure the methodological discussion in this article.
We use the term methodological to signal our interest in the common stance of
Rounds and CHAT-informed approaches to practice-development: a commitment to
research (defined in its most basic sense as the generation of new knowledge
through systematic enquiry) and a commitment to participatory ways of knowing
in which the role of any outside ‘researcher’ is not to lend the process
authority or objectivity. The focus in Rounds of gathering data through
observation for joint analysis, the importance of conversation and open
communication in that analysis, the future-orientation to the work of the
Rounds activity and the underlying commitment to seeing theory and practice
as a whole rather than as separate, hierarchically-ordered entities—all these
align easily with the general CHAT approach, as we will show in this paper, and
they both might therefore be understood as interesting forms of specifically
educational research.
That said, we do think there are important
differences that might be worthy of discussion and help to develop the Rounds
approach as an enabling intervention and to understand the terms of the
relationship between practice-development and research more generally. We
will not be arguing that Rounds needs to learn from CHAT, however. CHAT has
its own learning to do. But there are three areas in which we think further
clarification and elaboration of the methodology of Rounds would be useful.
The first is the relationship between individual and collective practice;
this is a perennial concern for CHAT also.
This question addresses how developing the
work – the teaching – of an individual teacher through systematic enquiry can
have wider impact on their colleagues, their department, their school.
Teachers are not only a collection of individual workers behind closed
classroom doors. They are part of an organisation and also part of a field or
practice (such as highschool Mathematics teaching) with its own
historically-developed norms, values and bodies of knowledge. What is the
possible relationship between individual practice-development and collective
or organisational practice development? And how do we know? The second
methodological question addresses the role of theory in the process of
Rounds; the usefulness (or otherwise) of abstract, propositional knowledge,
and how this might or might not take the development of a practice forward.
CHAT doesn’t argue that abstract concepts alone will improve practice. CHAT
does, though, as did Vygotsky (1974), argue that by bringing people’s own
ideas into contact with some ‘scientific’ (academic) ideas, you can then develop
mature concepts, a hybrid of abstract and spontaneous concepts that help
people to do some work in the world. Our view is that, perhapsparadoxically,
CHAT over-relies on and over-emphasises theory (see Ellis, 2011); it claims
that it is through the insertion of the theory (most commonly associated with
the triangular representation of the activity system) that people’s
perceptions are changed and new futures are possible. We are not sure it is
as simple as that always. As far as Rounds are concerned, however, in what
ways does theory figure in helping participants work out answers to their own
questions? Or doesn’t it? And is there an underlying theory of change driving
Rounds that needs to be made more explicit?
The third question concerns the meaning of
collaboration in the Rounds approach. The word ‘collaboration’, like the word
‘community’, is often assumed to be a good thing and always and inevitably
useful in professional development and school improvement. What do we mean by
collaboration, however, and how might it be useful, if it is? What kinds of
collaboration mark out the Rounds approach as particularly useful or
effective in achieving the twin goals of teacher learning and organisational
development? We do not propose to ‘answer’ these questions in a definitive
sense in the course of the article
but they will be
driving our examination of the Rounds approach from a methodological
perspective.
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2. Formative
interventions: Developing practice through research
The claim for DWR as a methodology of formative
intervention methodology is that it enables participants to do more than
simply work on improving their own performance either through action research
methods or through participation in a researcher-led design experiment. DWR
claims to develop critical understanding among participants of how their
existing ractices and discourses have been shaped culturally and historically
so that they might be worked on and developed at the level of the social
system. The aim is the development of what Engestro¨m calls ‘critical design
agency’ among the practitioners (Engestro¨m, 2007). This critical
consciousness, it is claimed, is stimulated by the power of the conceptual
tools of activity theory (represented by the triangular image of the activity
system) in helping participants analyse how the object of their collective
activity is constructed, how rules and a division of labour have emerged historically
within a community of practitioners, and how cultural tools are appropriated
by members of that community—and how these might be changed for the better.
In brief, the process can be summarised as follows.
A data-driven, developmental workshop (a
‘Change Laboratory’) of participating practitioners is facilitated by one or more
‘researcher-interventionists’. Notes are taken of the group’s interactions
(and sometimes a video recording of the whole event). The researcher
introduces evidence of current practices and discourses using one of three
displays known as the ‘mirror’.
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3. Teacher Rounds
as a formative intervention
Next, in turning to Rounds, we need to be
clear that Rounds does not identify itself primarily as a research methodology
per se but rather as a research-based means of practice development (an
activity that encompasses overlapping terms such as professional development
and school improvement). It does not, as DWR does, see itself as simultaneously
developing practice and theory. It may align with an overall approach that
could be described as ‘practitioner research’ (in its emphasis on the
systematic collection of observational data, for example) but it is primarily
offered as a tool for developing practice. Nonetheless, we do wish to explore
Rounds in terms of methodology and to do so in ways that might go beyond
regarding research on Rounds as evaluation of its outcomes or as case studies
of Rounds in action. To do so, we have selected one of the influential
versions of Rounds—known as Teacher Rounds, derived from the work of Del
Prete (2013). Del Prete (2013) suggests that the purposes of Teacher Rounds
are ‘to support teachers in understanding student learning and in developing
their practice individually and collectively’ (p. 1). A four-part protocol is
described:
1. ‘Preparing the Round Sheet’—providing
the essential context in written form; identifying the problem of practice
posed by
the host teacher
focused on student learning; then, the ‘Round Inquiry’ or guiding questions;
2. ‘The Preround Orientation’—a discussion
of the Round Sheet with all participants to ensure that the context, the
problem of practice and the guiding questions are understood;
3. ‘The Round’—during which participants
gather data on the lesson being taught by the host teacher, focusing on their
problem of practice and guiding questions; the data being generated here is
of the kind sometimes called ‘low inference’ (the point being to discourage
participants from rushing to interpretation and judgement);
4. ‘The Postround reflection’—in which
observation notes are shared descriptively with reference to the Rounds
question; followed by speculations and tentative hypoptheses of the ‘what if’
kind; followed by a section summing up what has been discovered through the
Rounds process and a reflection on the process itself. (Del Prete, 2013, pp.
141–144).
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KESIMPULAN
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In
this article, we have explored the potential of Rounds as a type of
research-based formative intervention from a methodological perspective and
in a comparison with the cultural-historical tradition of DWR. As such, we
believe the article is significant in offering both a specific,
methodological analysis of Rounds and an exploration of key methodological
questions underlying types of research (such as DWR) that claim the potential
to develop practice. We have discussed Rounds as an approach to identifying,
recognising and reconfiguring problems of practice in the social world of
classrooms, an approach built on a commitment to creating a supportive
professional environment and encouraging genuine collaboration among teachers
through systematic enquiry. Rounds have been seen to work by drawing groups
of teachers together in such a way that their professional creativity is
stimulated and new ideas produced collectively to address real problems (Del Prete, 2013 and Ellis, 2013). We have also identified three lines
of interest from a methodological standpoint: first, the tension between the
improvement of individual teacher performance and the wider collective
development of the practice of teaching within the context of school improvement;
second, the role or otherwise of theory or abstract, externally-derived ideas
in moving a practice forward through research; the meaning of collaboration
(let alone collaborative research) within often hierarchical organisations
such as schools that are also subject to strong lines of vertical
accountability. We do not want to appear to be arguing for the unique
properties of CHAT as a theory of learning, change and development. CHAT has
its own problems, perhaps such as an ironic over-reliance on theory and its
unique mediating potential (often signalled in the literature by a plethora
of triangles). It may be, however, that CHAT can inform the Rounds approach
to teacher development and school improvement with some useful responses to
questions about the role of theory, the individual/collective relationship
and the meaning of collaboration in stimulating change and developing
practice.
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